Bloom syndrome (BSyn) is characterized by severe pre- and postnatal growth deficiency, immune abnormalities, sensitivity to sunlight, insulin resistance, and a high risk for many cancers that occur at an early age. Despite their very small head circumference, most affected individuals have normal intellectual ability. Women may be fertile but often have early menopause, and men tend to be infertile, with only one confirmed case of paternity. Serious medical complications that are more common than in the general population and that also appear at unusually early ages include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes mellitus as a result of insulin resistance, and cancer of a wide variety of types and anatomic sites.

A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that includes characteristic ulcers, or open sores, in the colon. The main symptom of active disease is usually constant diarrhea mixed with blood, of gradual onset and intermittent periods of exacerbated symptoms contrasting with periods that are relatively symptom-free. In contrast to Crohn's disease this special form of colitis begins in the distal parts of the rectum, spreads continually upwards and affects only mucose and submucose tissue of the colon.

Cri-du-chat syndrome was first described by Lejeune et al. (1963) as a hereditary congenital syndrome associated with deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. The deletions can vary in size from extremely small and involving only band 5p15.2 to the entire short arm. Although the majority of deletions arise as new mutations, approximately 12% result from unbalanced segregation of translocations or recombination involving a pericentric inversion in one of the parents.

Familial dysautonomia, which affects the development and survival of sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic neurons, is a debilitating disorder present from birth. Neuronal degeneration progresses throughout life. Affected individuals have gastrointestinal dysfunction, autonomic crises (i.e., hypertensive vomiting attacks), recurrent pneumonia, altered pain sensitivity, altered temperature perception, and blood pressure instability. Hypotonia contributes to delay in acquisition of motor milestones. Optic neuropathy results in progressive vision loss. Older individuals often have a broad-based and ataxic gait that deteriorates over time. Developmental delay / intellectual disability occur in about 21% of individuals. Life expectancy is decreased.

Trichorhinophalangeal syndrome (TRPS) comprises TRPS I (caused by a heterozygous pathogenic variant in TRPS1) and TRPS II (caused by contiguous gene deletion of TRPS1, RAD21, and EXT1). Both types of TRPS are characterized by distinctive facial features; ectodermal features (fine, sparse, depigmented, and slow growing hair; dystrophic nails; and small breasts); and skeletal findings (short stature; short feet; brachydactyly with ulnar or radial deviation of the fingers; and early, marked hip dysplasia). TRPS II is characterized by multiple osteochondromas (typically first observed clinically on the scapulae and around the elbows and knees between ages 1 month and 6 years) and an increased risk of mild-to-moderate intellectual disability.

Alpha-mannosidosis encompasses a continuum of clinical findings from mild to severe. Three major clinical subtypes have been suggested: A mild form recognized after age ten years with absence of skeletal abnormalities, myopathy, and slow progression (type 1). A moderate form recognized before age ten years with presence of skeletal abnormalities, myopathy, and slow progression (type 2). A severe form manifested as prenatal loss or early death from progressive central nervous system involvement or infection (type 3). Individuals with a milder phenotype have mild-to-moderate intellectual disability, impaired hearing, characteristic coarse features, clinical or radiographic skeletal abnormalities, immunodeficiency, and primary central nervous system disease – mainly cerebellar involvement causing ataxia. Periods of psychiatric symptoms are common. Associated medical problems can include corneal opacities, hepatosplenomegaly, aseptic destructive arthritis, and metabolic myopathy. Alpha-mannosidosis is insidiously progressive; some individuals may live into the sixth decade.

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) is characterized by clinical features that typically develop in childhood and resemble some features of accelerated aging. Children with HGPS usually appear normal at birth. Profound failure to thrive occurs during the first year. Characteristic facial features include head that is disproportionately large for the face, narrow nasal ridge, narrow nasal tip, thin vermilion of the upper and lower lips, small mouth, and retro- and micrognathia. Common features include loss of subcutaneous fat, delayed eruption and loss of primary teeth, abnormal skin with small outpouchings over the abdomen and upper thighs, alopecia, nail dystrophy, coxa valga, and progressive joint contractures. Later findings include low-frequency conductive hearing loss, dental crowding, and partial lack of secondary tooth eruption. Motor and mental development is normal. Death occurs as a result of complications of severe atherosclerosis, either cardiac disease (myocardial infarction or heart failure) or cerebrovascular disease (stroke), generally between ages six and 20 years. Average life span is approximately 14.5 years.

Complement hyperactivation, angiopathic thrombosis, and protein-losing enteropathy (CHAPLE) is characterized by abdominal pain and diarrhea, primary intestinal lymphangiectasia, hypoproteinemic edema, and malabsorption. Some patients also exhibit bowel inflammation, recurrent infections associated with hypogammaglobulinemia, and/or angiopathic thromboembolic disease. Patient T lymphocytes show increased complement activation, causing surface deposition of complement and generating soluble C5a (Ozen et al., 2017).

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex (EBS) is characterized by fragility of the skin (and mucosal epithelia in some instances) that results in non-scarring blisters and erosions caused by minor mechanical trauma. EBS is distinguished from other types of epidermolysis bullosa (EB) or non-EB skin fragility syndromes by the location of the blistering in relation to the dermal-epidermal junction. In EBS, blistering occurs within basal keratinocytes. The severity of blistering ranges from limited to hands and feet to widespread involvement. Additional features can include hyperkeratosis of the palms and soles (keratoderma), nail dystrophy, milia, and hyper- and/or hypopigmentation. Rare EBS subtypes have been associated with additional clinical features including pyloric atresia, muscular dystrophy, cardiomyopathy, and/or nephropathy.

Dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (DEB) is a genetic skin disorder affecting skin and nails that usually presents at birth. DEB is divided into two major types depending on inheritance pattern: recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (RDEB) and dominant dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (DDEB). Each type is further divided into multiple clinical subtypes. Absence of a known family history of DEB does not preclude the diagnosis. Clinical findings in severe generalized RDEB include skin fragility manifest by blistering with minimal trauma that heals with milia and scarring. Blistering and erosions affecting the whole body may be present in the neonatal period. Oral involvement may lead to mouth blistering, fusion of the tongue to the floor of the mouth, and progressive diminution of the size of the oral cavity. Esophageal erosions can lead to webs and strictures that can cause severe dysphagia. Consequently, malnutrition and vitamin and mineral deficiency may lead to growth restriction in young children. Corneal erosions can lead to scarring and loss of vision. Blistering of the hands and feet followed by scarring fuses the digits into "mitten" hands and feet, with contractures and pseudosyndactyly. The lifetime risk of aggressive squamous cell carcinoma is higher than 90%. In contrast, the blistering in the less severe forms of RDEB may be localized to hands, feet, knees, and elbows with or without involvement of flexural areas and the trunk, and without the mutilating scarring seen in severe generalized RDEB. In DDEB, blistering is often mild and limited to hands, feet, knees, and elbows, but nonetheless heals with scarring. Dystrophic nails, especially toenails, are common and may be the only manifestation of DDEB.

Mucopolysaccharidosis type I (MPS I) is a progressive multisystem disorder with features ranging over a continuum of severity. While affected individuals have traditionally been classified as having one of three MPS I syndromes (Hurler syndrome, Hurler-Scheie syndrome, or Scheie syndrome), no easily measurable biochemical differences have been identified and the clinical findings overlap. Affected individuals are best described as having either a phenotype consistent with either severe (Hurler syndrome) or attenuated MPS I, a distinction that influences therapeutic options. Severe MPS I. Infants appear normal at birth. Typical early manifestations are nonspecific (e.g., umbilical or inguinal hernia, frequent upper respiratory tract infections before age 1 year). Coarsening of the facial features may not become apparent until after age one year. Gibbus deformity of the lower spine is common and often noted within the first year. Progressive skeletal dysplasia (dysostosis multiplex) involving all bones is universal, as is progressive arthropathy involving most joints. By age three years, linear growth decreases. Intellectual disability is progressive and profound but may not be readily apparent in the first year of life. Progressive cardiorespiratory involvement, hearing loss, and corneal clouding are common. Without treatment, death (typically from cardiorespiratory failure) usually occurs within the first ten years of life. Attenuated MPS I. Clinical onset is usually between ages three and ten years. The severity and rate of disease progression range from serious life-threatening complications leading to death in the second to third decade, to a normal life span complicated by significant disability from progressive joint manifestations and cardiorespiratory disease. While some individuals have no neurologic involvement and psychomotor development may be normal in early childhood, learning disabilities and psychiatric manifestations can be present later in life. Hearing loss, cardiac valvular disease, respiratory involvement, and corneal clouding are common.

A condition characterized by recurrent, self-limiting episodes of vomiting associated with intense nausea, pallor, and lethargy. It is commonly a migraine precursor.

Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is a congenital multiple-anomaly / cognitive impairment syndrome caused by an abnormality in cholesterol metabolism resulting from deficiency of the enzyme 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) reductase. It is characterized by prenatal and postnatal growth restriction, microcephaly, moderate-to-severe intellectual disability, and multiple major and minor malformations. The malformations include distinctive facial features, cleft palate, cardiac defects, underdeveloped external genitalia in males, postaxial polydactyly, and 2-3 syndactyly of the toes. The clinical spectrum is wide; individuals with normal development and only minor malformations have been described.

The corpus callosum is the largest fiber tract in the central nervous system and the major interhemispheric fiber bundle in the brain. Formation of the corpus callosum begins as early as 6 weeks' gestation, with the first fibers crossing the midline at 11 to 12 weeks' gestation, and completion of the basic shape by age 18 to 20 weeks (Schell-Apacik et al., 2008). Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is one of the most frequent malformations in brain with a reported incidence ranging between 0.5 and 70 in 10,000 births. ACC is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous condition, which can be observed either as an isolated condition or as a manifestation in the context of a congenital syndrome (see MOLECULAR GENETICS and Dobyns, 1996). Also see mirror movements-1 and/or agenesis of the corpus callosum (MRMV1; 157600). Schell-Apacik et al. (2008) noted that there is confusion in the literature regarding radiologic terminology concerning partial absence of the corpus callosum, where various designations have been used, including hypogenesis, hypoplasia, partial agenesis, or dysgenesis.

GLI3-related Pallister-Hall syndrome (GLI3-PHS) is characterized by a spectrum of anomalies ranging from polydactyly, asymptomatic bifid epiglottis, and hypothalamic hamartoma at the mild end to laryngotracheal cleft with neonatal lethality at the severe end. Individuals with mild GLI3-PHS may be incorrectly diagnosed as having isolated postaxial polydactyly type A. Individuals with GLI3-PHS can have pituitary insufficiency and may die as neonates from undiagnosed and untreated adrenal insufficiency.

Miller syndrome, also known as postaxial acrofacial dysostosis (POADS), is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized clinically by severe micrognathia, cleft lip and/or palate, hypoplasia or aplasia of the postaxial elements of the limbs, coloboma of the eyelids, and supernumerary nipples (summary by Ng et al., 2010).

Pallister-Killian syndrome (PKS) is a dysmorphic condition involving most organ systems, but is also characterized by a tissue-limited mosaicism; most fibroblasts have 47 chromosomes with an extra small metacentric chromosome, whereas the karyotype of lymphocytes is normal. The extra metacentric chromosome is an isochromosome for part of the short arm of chromosome 12: i(12)(p10) (Peltomaki et al., 1987; Warburton et al., 1987).

Congenital secretory chloride diarrhea is an autosomal recessive form of severe chronic diarrhea characterized by excretion of large amounts of watery stool containing high levels of chloride, resulting in dehydration, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis. The electrolyte disorder resembles the renal disorder Bartter syndrome (see 607364), except that chloride diarrhea is not associated with calcium level abnormalities (summary by Choi et al., 2009). Genetic Heterogeneity of Diarrhea Other forms of diarrhea include DIAR2 (251850), caused by mutation in the MYO5B gene (606540) on 18q21; DIAR3 (270420), caused by mutation in the SPINT2 gene (605124) on 19q13; DIAR4 (610370), caused by mutation in the NEUROG3 gene (604882) on 10q21; DIAR5 (613217), caused by mutation in the EPCAM gene (185535) on 2p21; DIAR6 (614616), caused by mutation in the GUCY2C gene (601330) on 12p12; DIAR7 (615863) caused by mutation in the DGAT1 gene (604900) on 8q24; DIAR8 (616868), caused by mutation in the SLC9A3 gene (182307) on 5p15; DIAR9 (618168), caused by mutation in the WNT2B gene (601968) on 1p13; DIAR10 (618183), caused by mutation in the PLVAP gene (607647) on 19p13; DIAR11 (618662), caused by deletion of the intestine critical region (ICR) on chromosome 16p13, resulting in loss of expression of the flanking gene PERCC1 (618656); DIAR12 (619445), caused by mutation in the STX3 gene (600876) on 11q12; and DIAR13 (620357), caused by mutation in the ACSL5 gene (605677) on chromosome 10q25.

Adenylosuccinase deficiency is an autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism caused by an enzymatic defect in de novo purine synthesis (DNPS) pathway. ADSL deficiency leads to the accumulation of toxic intermediates, including succinyladenosine (S-Ado) and succinylaminoimidazole carboxamide riboside (SAICAr) in body fluids. There are 3 major phenotypic forms of the disorder that correlate with different values of the S-Ado and SAICAr concentration ratios (S-Ado/SAICAr) in the cerebrospinal fluid. These include the most severe fatal neonatal encephalopathy (S-Ado/SAICAr ratio less than 1); childhood form (type I) with severe psychomotor retardation (S-Ado/SAICAr ratio close to 1), and a milder form (type II) with psychomotor retardation or hypotonia (S-Ado/SAICAr ratio greater than 2) (summary by Baresova et al., 2012).

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is characterized by: Acute sun sensitivity (severe sunburn with blistering, persistent erythema on minimal sun exposure) with marked freckle-like pigmentation of the face before age two years; Sunlight-induced ocular involvement (photophobia, severe keratitis, atrophy of the skin of the lids, ocular surface neoplasms); Greatly increased risk of sunlight-induced cutaneous neoplasms (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma) within the first decade of life. Approximately 25% of affected individuals have neurologic manifestations (acquired microcephaly, diminished or absent deep tendon stretch reflexes, progressive sensorineural hearing loss, progressive cognitive impairment, and ataxia). The most common causes of death are skin cancer, neurologic degeneration, and internal cancer. The median age at death in persons with XP with neurodegeneration (29 years) was found to be younger than that in persons with XP without neurodegeneration (37 years).

Methemoglobinemia due to NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized clinically by decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, with resultant cyanosis and hypoxia (review by Percy and Lappin, 2008). There are 2 types of methemoglobin reductase deficiency. In type I, the defect affects the soluble form of the enzyme, is restricted to red blood cells, and causes well-tolerated methemoglobinemia. In type II, the defect affects both the soluble and microsomal forms of the enzyme and is thus generalized, affecting red cells, leukocytes, and all body tissues. Type II methemoglobinemia is associated with mental deficiency and other neurologic symptoms. The neurologic symptoms may be related to the major role played by the cytochrome b5 system in the desaturation of fatty acids (Vives-Corrons et al., 1978; Kaplan et al., 1979).

CMO type I deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defect in the penultimate biochemical step of aldosterone biosynthesis, the 18-hydroxylation of corticosterone (B) to 18-hydroxycorticosterone (18-OHB). This enzymatic defect results in decreased aldosterone and salt-wasting. In CMO I deficiency, aldosterone is undetectable, whereas its immediate precursor, 18-OHB, is low or normal. These patients have an increased ratio of corticosterone to 18-OHB (Portrat-Doyen et al., 1998). The CYP11B2 gene product also catalyzes the final step in aldosterone biosynthesis: the 18-oxidation of 18-OHB to aldosterone. A defect in that enzymatic step results in CMO type II deficiency (610600), an allelic disorder with an overlapping phenotype but distinct biochemical features. In CMO II deficiency, aldosterone can be low or normal, but at the expense of increased secretion of 18-OHB. These patients have a low ratio of corticosterone to 18-OHB (Portrat-Doyen et al., 1998).

Occipital horn syndrome (OHS) is a rare connective tissue disorder characterized by hyperelastic and bruisable skin, hernias, bladder diverticula, hyperextensible joints, varicosities, and multiple skeletal abnormalities. The disorder is sometimes accompanied by mild neurologic impairment, and bony abnormalities of the occiput are a common feature, giving rise to the name (summary by Das et al., 1995).

NR0B1-related adrenal hypoplasia congenita includes both X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita (X-linked AHC) and Xp21 deletion (previously called complex glycerol kinase deficiency). X-linked AHC is characterized by primary adrenal insufficiency and/or hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH). Adrenal insufficiency is acute infantile onset (average age 3 weeks) in approximately 60% of affected males and childhood onset (ages 1-9 years) in approximately 40%. HH typically manifests in a male with adrenal insufficiency as delayed puberty (i.e., onset age >14 years) and less commonly as arrested puberty at about Tanner Stage 3. Rarely, X-linked AHC manifests initially in early adulthood as delayed-onset adrenal insufficiency, partial HH, and/or infertility. Heterozygous females very occasionally have manifestations of adrenal insufficiency or hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Xp21 deletion includes deletion of NR0B1 (causing X-linked AHC) and GK (causing glycerol kinase deficiency), and in some cases deletion of DMD (causing Duchenne muscular dystrophy). Developmental delay has been reported in males with Xp21 deletion when the deletion extends proximally to include DMD or when larger deletions extend distally to include IL1RAPL1 and DMD.

Gitelman syndrome (GTLMNS) is an autosomal recessive renal tubular salt-wasting disorder characterized by hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis with hypomagnesemia and hypocalciuria. It is the most common renal tubular disorder among Caucasians (prevalence of 1 in 40,000). Most patients have onset of symptoms as adults, but some present in childhood. Clinical features include transient periods of muscle weakness and tetany, abdominal pains, and chondrocalcinosis (summary by Glaudemans et al., 2012). Gitelman syndrome is sometimes referred to as a mild variant of classic Bartter syndrome (607364). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Bartter syndrome, see 607364.

The phenotypic spectrum of sepiapterin reductase deficiency (SRD), which ranges from significant motor and cognitive deficits to only minimal findings, has not been completely elucidated. Clinical features in the majority of affected individuals include motor and speech delay, axial hypotonia, dystonia, weakness, and oculogyric crises; symptoms show diurnal fluctuation and sleep benefit. Other common features include parkinsonian signs (tremor, bradykinesia, masked facies, rigidity), limb hypertonia, hyperreflexia, intellectual disability, psychiatric and/or behavioral abnormalities, autonomic dysfunction, and sleep disturbances (hypersomnolence, difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, and drowsiness). Most affected individuals have nonspecific features in infancy including developmental delays and axial hypotonia; other features develop over time.

Tyrosinemia type II (TYRSN2) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by keratitis, painful palmoplantar hyperkeratosis, mental retardation, and elevated serum tyrosine levels. The disorder is caused by deficiency of hepatic tyrosine aminotransferase (Natt et al., 1992).

Untreated tyrosinemia type I usually presents either in young infants with severe liver involvement or later in the first year with liver dysfunction and renal tubular dysfunction associated with growth failure and rickets. Untreated children may have repeated, often unrecognized, neurologic crises lasting one to seven days that can include change in mental status, abdominal pain, peripheral neuropathy, and/or respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation. Death in the untreated child usually occurs before age ten years, typically from liver failure, neurologic crisis, or hepatocellular carcinoma. Combined treatment with nitisinone and a low-tyrosine diet has resulted in a greater than 90% survival rate, normal growth, improved liver function, prevention of cirrhosis, correction of renal tubular acidosis, and improvement in secondary rickets.

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase-alpha deficiency (ACACAD) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by hypotonia and global developmental delay (summary by Shafieipour et al., 2023).

Glutamate formiminotransferase deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder and the second most common inborn error of folate metabolism. Features of a severe phenotype include elevated levels of formiminoglutamate (FIGLU) in the urine in response to histidine administration, megaloblastic anemia, and mental retardation. Features of a mild phenotype include high urinary excretion of FIGLU in the absence of histidine administration, mild developmental delay, and no hematologic abnormalities (summary by Hilton et al., 2003).

Vitamin D-dependent rickets is a disorder of bone development that leads to softening and weakening of the bones (rickets). There are several forms of the condition that are distinguished primarily by their genetic causes: type 1A (VDDR1A), type 1B (VDDR1B), and type 2A (VDDR2A). There is also evidence of a very rare form of the condition, called type 2B (VDDR2B), although not much is known about this form.\n\nThe signs and symptoms of vitamin D-dependent rickets begin within months after birth, and most are the same for all types of the condition. The weak bones often cause bone pain and delayed growth and have a tendency to fracture. When affected children begin to walk, they may develop abnormally curved (bowed) legs because the bones are too weak to bear weight. Impaired bone development also results in widening of the areas near the ends of bones where new bone forms (metaphyses), especially in the knees, wrists, and ribs. Some people with vitamin D-dependent rickets have dental abnormalities such as thin tooth enamel and frequent cavities. Poor muscle tone (hypotonia) and muscle weakness are also common in this condition, and some affected individuals develop seizures.\n\nHair loss (alopecia) can occur in VDDR2A, although not everyone with this form of the condition has alopecia. Affected individuals can have sparse or patchy hair or no hair at all on their heads. Some affected individuals are missing body hair as well.\n\nIn vitamin D-dependent rickets, there is an imbalance of certain substances in the blood. An early sign in all types of the condition is low levels of the mineral calcium (hypocalcemia), which is essential for the normal formation of bones and teeth. Affected individuals also develop high levels of a hormone involved in regulating calcium levels called parathyroid hormone (PTH), which leads to a condition called secondary hyperparathyroidism. Low levels of a mineral called phosphate (hypophosphatemia) also occur in affected individuals. Vitamin D-dependent rickets types 1 and 2 can be grouped by blood levels of a hormone called calcitriol, which is the active form of vitamin D; individuals with VDDR1A and VDDR1B have abnormally low levels of calcitriol and individuals with VDDR2A and VDDR2B have abnormally high levels.

Diarrhea-2 with microvillus atrophy, with or without cholestasis (DIAR2) is characterized by onset of intractable life-threatening watery diarrhea during infancy. Two forms are recognized: early-onset microvillus inclusion disease (MVID) with diarrhea beginning in the neonatal period, and late-onset, with first symptoms appearing after 3 or 4 months of life. Definite diagnosis is made by transmission electron microscopy demonstrating shortening or absence of apical microvilli with pathognomonic microvillus inclusions in mature enterocytes and peripheral accumulation of periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-positive granules or vesicles in immature enterocytes (Muller et al., 2008). The natural course of MVID is often fatal, but partial or total weaning from parenteral nutrition has been described. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of diarrhea, see DIAR1 (214700).

Presumed loss-of-function mutation(s) in the IYD gene, resulting in reduced activity of the enzyme iodotyrosine deiodinase.

Congenital hypothyroidism can also occur as part of syndromes that affect other organs and tissues in the body. These forms of the condition are described as syndromic. Some common forms of syndromic hypothyroidism include Pendred syndrome, Bamforth-Lazarus syndrome, and brain-lung-thyroid syndrome.\n\nCongenital hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland fails to develop or function properly. In 80 to 85 percent of cases, the thyroid gland is absent, severely reduced in size (hypoplastic), or abnormally located. These cases are classified as thyroid dysgenesis. In the remainder of cases, a normal-sized or enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) is present, but production of thyroid hormones is decreased or absent. Most of these cases occur when one of several steps in the hormone synthesis process is impaired; these cases are classified as thyroid dyshormonogenesis. Less commonly, reduction or absence of thyroid hormone production is caused by impaired stimulation of the production process (which is normally done by a structure at the base of the brain called the pituitary gland), even though the process itself is unimpaired. These cases are classified as central (or pituitary) hypothyroidism.\n\nSigns and symptoms of congenital hypothyroidism result from the shortage of thyroid hormones. Affected babies may show no features of the condition, although some babies with congenital hypothyroidism are less active and sleep more than normal. They may have difficulty feeding and experience constipation. If untreated, congenital hypothyroidism can lead to intellectual disability and slow growth. In the United States and many other countries, all hospitals test newborns for congenital hypothyroidism. If treatment begins in the first two weeks after birth, infants usually develop normally.\n\nCongenital hypothyroidism is a partial or complete loss of function of the thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) that affects infants from birth (congenital). The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped tissue in the lower neck. It makes iodine-containing hormones that play an important role in regulating growth, brain development, and the rate of chemical reactions in the body (metabolism). People with congenital hypothyroidism have lower-than-normal levels of these important hormones.

Apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME) is an autosomal recessive form of low-renin hypertension associated with low aldosterone, metabolic alkalosis, hypernatremia, and hypokalemia. The disorder is due to a congenital defect in 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II (HSD11B2) activity, resulting in decreased conversion of biologically active cortisol to inactive cortisone; this defect allows cortisol to act as a ligand for the mineralocorticoid receptor, resulting in sodium retention and volume expansion. There is a favorable therapeutic response to spironolactone (review by Ferrari, 2010).

Isolated growth hormone deficiency type IA (IGHD1A) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe growth failure (SDS less than -4.5) by 6 months of age, undetectable growth hormone (GH) concentrations, and a tendency to develop antibodies despite an initial good response to rhGH treatment (summary by Alatzoglou et al., 2014). Genetic Heterogeneity of Isolated Growth Hormone Deficiency See IGHD1B (617281) and IGHD2 (173100), both caused by mutation in the GH1 gene; IGHD3 (307200), caused by mutation in the BTK gene (300300); and IGHD4 (618157), caused by mutation in the GHRHR gene (139191). Isolated growth hormone deficiency-5 (IGHD5) has been reclassified as combined pituitary hormone deficiency-7 (CPHD7; 618160).

Vitamin D-dependent rickets type 2A (VDDR2A) is caused by a defect in the vitamin D receptor gene. This defect leads to an increase in the circulating ligand, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Most patients have total alopecia in addition to rickets. VDDR2B (600785) is a form of vitamin D-dependent rickets with a phenotype similar to VDDR2A but a normal vitamin D receptor, in which end-organ resistance to vitamin D has been shown to be caused by a nuclear ribonucleoprotein that interferes with the vitamin D receptor-DNA interaction. For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of rickets due to disorders in vitamin D metabolism or action, see vitamin D-dependent rickets type 1A (VDDR1A; 264700).

D-glyceric aciduria is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder with a highly variable phenotype. Some patients have an encephalopathic presentation, with severely impaired intellectual development, seizures, microcephaly, and sometimes early death, whereas others have a mild phenotype with only mild speech delay or even normal development (summary by Sass et al., 2010).

Dihydropyrimidinase deficiency (DPYSD) is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by the presence of dihydropyrimidinuria. The clinical phenotype is highly variable, ranging from early infantile onset of severe neurologic involvement, dysmorphic features, and feeding problems to late onset of mild intellectual disability and even asymptomatic individuals. Patients with a complete or partial deficiency have an increased risk of developing severe toxicity after administration of the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) (summary by Nakajima et al., 2017). See also dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency (274270), a similar disorder.

The nephrotic syndrome is characterized clinically by proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia, and edema. Kidney biopsies show nonspecific histologic changes such as minimal change, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), and diffuse mesangial proliferation. Approximately 20% of affected individuals have an inherited steroid-resistant form and progress to end-stage renal failure (summary by Fuchshuber et al., 1996). Nephrotic syndrome type 1 (NPHS1) is characterized by prenatal onset of massive proteinuria followed by severe steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome apparent at birth with rapid progression to end-stage renal failure (Kestila et al., 1998). Because of confusion in the literature regarding use of the terms 'nephrotic syndrome' and 'focal segmental glomerulosclerosis' (see NOMENCLATURE section), these disorders in OMIM are classified as NPHS or FSGS according to how they were first designated in the literature. Genetic Heterogeneity of Nephrotic Syndrome and Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis Nephrotic syndrome and FSGS are genetically heterogeneous disorders representing a spectrum of hereditary renal diseases. See also NPHS2 (600995), caused by mutation in the podocin gene (604766); NPHS3 (610725), caused by mutation in the PLCE1 gene (608414); NPHS4 (256370), caused by mutation in the WT1 gene (607102); NPHS5 (614199), caused by mutation in the LAMB2 gene (150325); NPHS6 (614196), caused by mutation in the PTPRO gene (600579); NPHS7 (615008), caused by mutation in the DGKE gene (601440); NPHS8 (615244), caused by mutation in the ARHGDIA gene (601925); NPHS9 (615573), caused by mutation in the COQ8B gene (615567); NPHS10 (615861), caused by mutation in the EMP2 gene (602334); NPHS11 (616730), caused by mutation in the NUP107 gene (607617); NPHS12 (616892), caused by mutation in the NUP93 gene (614351); NPHS13 (616893), caused by mutation in the NUP205 gene (614352); NPHS14 (617575), caused by mutation in the SGPL1 gene (603729); NPHS15 (617609), caused by mutation in the MAGI2 gene (606382); NPHS16 (617783), caused by mutation in the KANK2 gene (614610), NPHS17 (618176), caused by mutation in the NUP85 gene (170285); NPHS18 (618177), caused by mutation in the NUP133 gene (607613); NPHS19 (618178), caused by mutation in the NUP160 gene (607614); NPHS20 (301028), caused by mutation in the TBC1D8B gene (301027); NPHS21 (618594) caused by mutation in the AVIL gene (613397); NPHS22 (619155), caused by mutation in the NOS1AP gene (605551); NPHS23 (619201), caused by mutation in the KIRREL1 gene (607428); NPHS24 (619263), caused by mutation in the DAAM2 gene (606627); and NPHS26 (620049), caused by mutation in the LAMA5 gene (601033). The symbol NPHS25 has been used as an alternative designation for NPHS21. See also FSGS1 (603278), caused by mutation in the ACTN4 gene (604638); FSGS2 (603965), caused by mutation in the TRPC6 gene (603652); FSGS3 (607832), associated with variation in the CD2AP gene (604241); FSGS4 (612551), mapped to chromosome 22q12; FSGS5 (613237), caused by mutation in the INF2 gene (610982); FSGS6 (614131), caused by mutation in the MYO1E gene (601479); FSGS7 (616002), caused by mutation in the PAX2 gene (167409); FSGS8 (616032), caused by mutation in the ANLN gene (616027); and FSGS9 (616220), caused by mutation in the CRB2 gene (609720).

GAPO syndrome is the acronymic designation for a complex of growth retardation, alopecia, pseudoanodontia (failure of tooth eruption), and progressive optic atrophy (Tipton and Gorlin, 1984). Ilker et al. (1999) and Bayram et al. (2014) noted that optic atrophy is not a consistent feature of the disorder.

Chronic infantile neurologic cutaneous and articular syndrome (CINCA) is an early-onset, severe, chronic inflammatory disease, characterized by cutaneous symptoms, central nervous system involvement, and arthropathy (Feldmann et al., 2002). See also familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome-1 (FCAS1, CAPS1; 120100), an allelic disorder with a less severe phenotype.

Gillespie syndrome (GLSP) is usually diagnosed in the first year of life by the presence of fixed dilated pupils in a hypotonic infant. Affected individuals have a characteristic form of iris hypoplasia in which the pupillary border of the iris exhibits a scalloped or 'festooned' edge, with iris strands extending onto the anterior lens surface at regular intervals. The key extraocular features of Gillespie syndrome are congenital hypotonia, progressive cerebellar hypoplasia, and ataxia, as well as variable cognitive impairment that is usually mild (summary by Gerber et al., 2016 and McEntagart et al., 2016).

Trichorhinophalangeal syndrome (TRPS) comprises TRPS I (caused by a heterozygous pathogenic variant in TRPS1) and TRPS II (caused by contiguous gene deletion of TRPS1, RAD21, and EXT1). Both types of TRPS are characterized by distinctive facial features; ectodermal features (fine, sparse, depigmented, and slow growing hair; dystrophic nails; and small breasts); and skeletal findings (short stature; short feet; brachydactyly with ulnar or radial deviation of the fingers; and early, marked hip dysplasia). TRPS II is characterized by multiple osteochondromas (typically first observed clinically on the scapulae and around the elbows and knees between ages 1 month and 6 years) and an increased risk of mild-to-moderate intellectual disability.

Osteoglophonic dysplasia (OGD) is characterized by rhizomelic dwarfism, nonossifying bone lesions, craniosynostosis, prominent supraorbital ridge, and depressed nasal bridge (summary by White et al., 2005).

Mulibrey nanism (MUL) is a rare autosomal recessive growth disorder with prenatal onset, including occasional progressive cardiomyopathy, characteristic facial features, failure of sexual maturation, insulin resistance with type 2 diabetes, and an increased risk for Wilms tumor (summary by Hamalainen et al., 2006).

Phosphorylase kinase (PhK) deficiency causing glycogen storage disease type IX (GSD IX) results from deficiency of the enzyme phosphorylase b kinase, which has a major regulatory role in the breakdown of glycogen. The two types of PhK deficiency are liver PhK deficiency (characterized by early childhood onset of hepatomegaly and growth restriction, and often, but not always, fasting ketosis and hypoglycemia) and muscle PhK deficiency, which is considerably rarer (characterized by any of the following: exercise intolerance, myalgia, muscle cramps, myoglobinuria, and progressive muscle weakness). While symptoms and biochemical abnormalities of liver PhK deficiency were thought to improve with age, it is becoming evident that affected individuals need to be monitored for long-term complications such as liver fibrosis and cirrhosis.

Barth syndrome is characterized in affected males by cardiomyopathy, neutropenia, skeletal myopathy, prepubertal growth delay, and distinctive facial gestalt (most evident in infancy); not all features may be present in a given affected male. Cardiomyopathy, which is almost always present before age five years, is typically dilated cardiomyopathy with or without endocardial fibroelastosis or left ventricular noncompaction; hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can also occur. Heart failure is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality; risk of arrhythmia and sudden death is increased. Neutropenia is most often associated with mouth ulcers, pneumonia, and sepsis. The nonprogressive myopathy predominantly affects the proximal muscles, and results in early motor delays. Prepubertal growth delay is followed by a postpubertal growth spurt with remarkable "catch-up" growth. Heterozygous females who have a normal karyotype are asymptomatic and have normal biochemical studies.

Microphthalmia with limb anomalies (MLA), also known as Waardenburg anophthalmia syndrome or ophthalmoacromelic syndrome (OAS), is a rare autosomal recessive developmental disorder characterized by unilateral or bilateral microphthalmia, clinical anophthalmia, syndactyly, polydactyly, synostosis, or oligodactyly. Long-bone hypoplasia and renal, venous, and vertebral anomalies may also be present. Impaired intellectual development is present in about half of affected individuals (summary by Tekin et al., 2000, Abouzeid et al., 2011).

Recombinant chromosome 8 syndrome (Rec8 syndrome) is a chromosomal disorder found among individuals of Hispanic descent with ancestry from the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado and northern New Mexico. Affected individuals typically have impaired intellectual development, congenital heart defects, seizures, a characteristic facial appearance with hypertelorism, thin upper lip, anteverted nares, wide face, and abnormal hair whorl, and other manifestations (Sujansky et al., 1993, summary by Graw et al., 2000).

Syndrome with characteristics of psychomotor delay, brachycephaly with flat face, small nose, microstomia, cleft palate, cataract, hearing loss, hypoplastic scrotum and digital anomalies. Less than 10 patients have been described in the literature so far. Although the majority of reported cases were sporadic, the syndrome has been reported in one pair of siblings (a brother and sister) with an apparently autosomal recessive inheritance pattern.

Chylomicron retention disease (CMRD), characterized by the inability to secrete chylomicrons from the enterocytes following the ingestion of fat, typically presents in infancy with failure to thrive, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal distention, and malabsorption of fat. This leads to steatorrhea – the severity of which relates to the fat content of the diet – and in some cases, hepatomegaly. Organ systems outside of the gastrointestinal tract may also be affected (often due to malnutrition and deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins), including neuromuscular abnormalities (typically in the first or second decade of life) secondary to vitamin E deficiency, poor bone mineralization and delayed bone maturation due to vitamin D deficiency, prolonged international normalized ratio (INR) due to vitamin K deficiency, mild ophthalmologic issues (e.g., micronystagmus, delayed dark adaptation, abnormal visual evoked potentials, and abnormal scotopic electroretinograms), and (in a small proportion of adults) cardiomyopathy with decreased ejection fraction. Affected individuals typically have marked hypocholesterolemia, low plasma apolipoprotein B levels, normal-to-low plasma triglyceride levels, and low serum concentrations of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). Endoscopy typically demonstrates a gelée blanche ("white hoar frosting") appearance of the duodenal mucosa.

MED12-related disorders include the phenotypes of FG syndrome type 1 (FGS1), Lujan syndrome (LS), X-linked Ohdo syndrome (XLOS), Hardikar syndrome (HS), and nonspecific intellectual disability (NSID). FGS1 and LS share the clinical findings of cognitive impairment, hypotonia, and abnormalities of the corpus callosum. FGS1 is further characterized by absolute or relative macrocephaly, tall forehead, downslanted palpebral fissures, small and simple ears, constipation and/or anal anomalies, broad thumbs and halluces, and characteristic behavior. LS is further characterized by large head, tall thin body habitus, long thin face, prominent nasal bridge, high narrow palate, and short philtrum. Carrier females in families with FGS1 and LS are typically unaffected. XLOS is characterized by intellectual disability, blepharophimosis, and facial coarsening. HS has been described in females with cleft lip and/or cleft palate, biliary and liver anomalies, intestinal malrotation, pigmentary retinopathy, and coarctation of the aorta. Developmental and cognitive concerns have not been reported in females with HS. Pathogenic variants in MED12 have been reported in an increasing number of males and females with NSID, with affected individuals often having clinical features identified in other MED12-related disorders.

Kabuki syndrome (KS) is characterized by typical facial features (long palpebral fissures with eversion of the lateral third of the lower eyelid; arched and broad eyebrows; short columella with depressed nasal tip; large, prominent, or cupped ears), minor skeletal anomalies, persistence of fetal fingertip pads, mild-to-moderate intellectual disability, and postnatal growth deficiency. Other findings may include: congenital heart defects, genitourinary anomalies, cleft lip and/or palate, gastrointestinal anomalies including anal atresia, ptosis and strabismus, and widely spaced teeth and hypodontia. Functional differences can include: increased susceptibility to infections and autoimmune disorders, seizures, endocrinologic abnormalities (including isolated premature thelarche in females), feeding problems, and hearing loss.

Microphthalmia-ankyloblepharon-intellectual disability syndrome is characterized by microphthalmia, ankyloblepharon and intellectual deficit. It has been described in seven male patients from two generations of a Northern Ireland family. The causative gene is localized to the Xq27-q28 region. The syndrome is transmitted as an X-linked recessive trait.

Lysine malabsorption with severe malnourishment, extreme flaccidity, and psychomotor retardation.

Arts syndrome, which is part of the spectrum of PRPS1-related disorders, is characterized by profound congenital sensorineural hearing impairment, early-onset hypotonia, delayed motor development, mild to moderate intellectual disability, ataxia, and increased risk of infection, all of which – with the exception of optic atrophy – present before age two years. Signs of peripheral neuropathy develop during early childhood. Twelve of 15 boys from the two Dutch families reported with Arts syndrome died before age six years of complications of infection. Carrier females can show late-onset (age >20 years) hearing impairment and other findings.

The term '3MC syndrome' encompasses 4 rare autosomal recessive disorders that were previously designated the Carnevale, Mingarelli, Malpuech, and Michels syndromes, respectively. The main features of these syndromes are facial dysmorphism that includes hypertelorism, blepharophimosis, blepharoptosis, and highly arched eyebrows, which are present in 70 to 95% of cases. Cleft lip and palate, postnatal growth deficiency, cognitive impairment, and hearing loss are also consistent findings, occurring in 40 to 68% of cases. Craniosynostosis, radioulnar synostosis, and genital and vesicorenal anomalies occur in 20 to 30% of cases. Rare features include anterior chamber defects, cardiac anomalies, caudal appendage, umbilical hernia (omphalocele), and diastasis recti (summary by Rooryck et al., 2011). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of 3MC syndrome, see 3MC1 (257920).

The term '3MC syndrome' encompasses 4 rare autosomal recessive disorders that were previously designated the Carnevale, Mingarelli, Malpuech, and Michels syndromes, respectively. The main features of these syndromes are facial dysmorphism that includes hypertelorism, blepharophimosis, blepharoptosis, and highly arched eyebrows, which are present in 70 to 95% of cases. Cleft lip and palate, postnatal growth deficiency, cognitive impairment, and hearing loss are also consistent findings, occurring in 40 to 68% of cases. Craniosynostosis, radioulnar synostosis, and genital and vesicorenal anomalies occur in 20 to 30% of cases. Rare features include anterior chamber defects, cardiac anomalies, caudal appendage, umbilical hernia (omphalocele), and diastasis recti (summary by Rooryck et al., 2011). Genetic Heterogeneity of 3MC Syndrome Also see 3MC syndrome-2 (3MC2; 265050), caused by mutation in the COLEC11 gene (612502), and 3MC syndrome-3 (3MC3; 248340), caused by mutation in the COLEC1 gene (607620).

Classic Joubert syndrome (JS) is characterized by three primary findings: A distinctive cerebellar and brain stem malformation called the molar tooth sign (MTS). Hypotonia. Developmental delays. Often these findings are accompanied by episodic tachypnea or apnea and/or atypical eye movements. In general, the breathing abnormalities improve with age, truncal ataxia develops over time, and acquisition of gross motor milestones is delayed. Cognitive abilities are variable, ranging from severe intellectual disability to normal. Additional findings can include retinal dystrophy, renal disease, ocular colobomas, occipital encephalocele, hepatic fibrosis, polydactyly, oral hamartomas, and endocrine abnormalities. Both intra- and interfamilial variation are seen.

Schimke immunoosseous dysplasia (SIOD) is characterized by spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia (SED) resulting in short stature, nephropathy, and T-cell deficiency. Radiographic manifestations of SED include ovoid and mildly flattened vertebral bodies, small ilia with shallow dysplastic acetabular fossae, and small deformed capital femoral epiphyses. Nearly all affected individuals have progressive steroid-resistant nephropathy, usually developing within five years of the diagnosis of growth failure and terminating with end-stage renal disease. The majority of tested individuals have T-cell deficiency and an associated risk for opportunistic infection, a common cause of death. SIOD involves a spectrum that ranges from an infantile or severe early-onset form with a greater risk of death during childhood to a juvenile or milder later-onset form with likely survival into adulthood if renal disease is appropriately treated.

Free sialic acid storage disorders (FSASDs) are a spectrum of neurodegenerative disorders resulting from increased lysosomal storage of free sialic acid. Historically, FSASD was divided into separate allelic disorders: Salla disease, intermediate severe Salla disease, and infantile free sialic acid storage disease (ISSD). The mildest type was Salla disease, characterized by normal appearance and absence of neurologic findings at birth, followed by slowly progressive neurologic deterioration resulting in mild-to-moderate psychomotor delays, spasticity, athetosis, and epileptic seizures. Salla disease was named for a municipality in Finnish Lapland where a specific founder variant is relatively prevalent. However, the term Salla has been used in the literature to refer to less severe FSASD. More severe FSASD is historically referred to as ISSD, and is characterized by severe developmental delay, coarse facial features, hepatosplenomegaly, and cardiomegaly; death usually occurs in early childhood.

3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency is an inherited condition that prevents the body from converting certain fats to energy, particularly during prolonged periods without food (fasting).\n\nInitial signs and symptoms of this disorder typically occur during infancy or early childhood and can include poor appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, and lack of energy (lethargy). Affected individuals can also have muscle weakness (hypotonia), liver problems, low blood glucose (hypoglycemia), and abnormally high levels of insulin (hyperinsulinism). Insulin controls the amount of glucose that moves from the blood into cells for conversion to energy. Individuals with 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency are also at risk for complications such as seizures, life-threatening heart and breathing problems, coma, and sudden death. This condition may explain some cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), which is defined as unexplained death in babies younger than 1 year.\n\nProblems related to 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency can be triggered by periods of fasting or by illnesses such as viral infections. This disorder is sometimes mistaken for Reye syndrome, a severe disorder that may develop in children while they appear to be recovering from viral infections such as chicken pox or flu. Most cases of Reye syndrome are associated with the use of aspirin during these viral infections.

Nicolaides-Baraitser syndrome (NCBRS) is characterized by sparse scalp hair, prominence of the inter-phalangeal joints and distal phalanges due to decreased subcutaneous fat, characteristic coarse facial features, microcephaly, seizures, and developmental delay / intellectual disability. Seizures are of various types and can be difficult to manage. Developmental delay / intellectual disability (ID) is severe in nearly a half, moderate in a third, and mild in the remainder. Nearly a third never develop speech or language skills.

Trichothiodystrophy is a rare autosomal recessive disorder in which patients have brittle, sulfur-deficient hair that displays a diagnostic alternating light and dark banding pattern, called 'tiger tail banding,' under polarizing microscopy. TTD patients display a wide variety of clinical features, including cutaneous, neurologic, and growth abnormalities. Common additional clinical features are ichthyosis, intellectual/developmental disabilities, decreased fertility, abnormal characteristics at birth, ocular abnormalities, short stature, and infections. There are both photosensitive and nonphotosensitive forms of the disorder (summary by Faghri et al., 2008). Sabinas brittle hair syndrome (211390) is another form of nonphotosensitive TTD. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of trichothiodystrophy, see 601675.

A rare, congenital malformation syndrome characterized by the association of anterior ocular chamber cleavage disorder with developmental delay, short stature and congenital hypothyroidism. Additional manifestations include cerebellar hypoplasia, tracheal stenosis, narrow external auditory meatus, and hip dislocation. There have been no further description in the literature since 1995.

MEDNIK syndrome is a severe multisystem disorder characterized by impaired intellectual development, enteropathy, deafness, peripheral neuropathy, ichthyosis, and keratoderma (summary by Montpetit et al., 2008). Patients with MEDNIK exhibit distinct dysmorphic features, including high forehead, upslanting palpebral fissures, depressed nasal bridge, and low-set ears, as well as growth retardation and moderate to severe intellectual disability, with brain atrophy on imaging. Other features include sensorineural deafness, enteropathy with congenital diarrhea, abnormalities of copper metabolism associated with liver disease, and ichthyosis, hyperkeratosis, and erythroderma. Peripheral neuropathy has also been observed in adult patients (Martinelli et al., 2013). MEDNIK syndrome shows phenotypic similarities to CEDNIK syndrome (609528).

PCWH syndrome is a complex neurocristopathy that includes features of 4 distinct syndromes: peripheral demyelinating neuropathy (see 118200), central dysmyelination, Waardenburg syndrome, and Hirschsprung disease (see 142623) (Inoue et al., 2004). Inoue et al. (2004) proposed the acronym PCWH for this disorder.

Stomatin-deficient cryohydrocytosis with neurologic defects (SDCHCN) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, seizures, cataracts, and pseudohyperkalemia resulting from defects in the red blood cell membrane. The disorder combines the neurologic features of Glut1 deficiency syndrome-1 (GLUT1DS1; 606777), resulting from impaired glucose transport at the blood-brain barrier, and hemolytic anemia/pseudohyperkalemia with stomatocytosis, resulting from a cation leak in erythrocytes (summary by Bawazir et al., 2012). For a discussion of clinical and genetic heterogeneity of red cell stomatocyte disorders, see 194380.

Sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (SIDDT) is characterized by sudden cardiac or respiratory arrest, disordered testicular development, and neurologic dysfunction, and is uniformly fatal before 1 year of age (Slater et al., 2020).

Mandibuloacral dysplasia with type B lipodystrophy (MADB) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by postnatal growth retardation, craniofacial anomalies such as mandibular hypoplasia, skeletal anomalies such as progressive osteolysis of the terminal phalanges and clavicles, and skin changes such as mottled hyperpigmentation and atrophy. The lipodystrophy is characterized by generalized loss of subcutaneous fat involving the face, trunk, and extremities. Some patients have a progeroid appearance. Metabolic complications associated with insulin resistance have been reported (Schrander-Stumpel et al., 1992; summary by Simha et al., 2003). For a general phenotypic description of lipodystrophy associated with mandibuloacral dysplasia, see MADA (248370).

A rare genetic disorder characterised by split-hand/split-foot malformation (SHFM), facial anomalies, cleft lip/palate, congenital heart defect (CHD), genital anomalies, and intellectual deficit.

Oculoectodermal syndrome (OES) is characterized by the association of epibulbar dermoids and aplasia cutis congenita. Affected individuals exhibit congenital scalp lesions which are atrophic, nonscarring, hairless regions that are often multiple and asymmetric in distribution, and may have associated hamartomas. Ectodermal changes include linear hyperpigmentation that may follow the lines of Blaschko and, rarely, epidermal nevus-like lesions. Epibulbar dermoids may be uni- or bilateral. Additional ocular anomalies such as skin tags of the upper eyelid and rarely optic nerve or retinal changes or microphthalmia can be present. Phenotypic expression is highly variable, and various other abnormalities have occasionally been reported, including growth failure, lymphedema, and cardiovascular defects, as well as neurodevelopmental symptoms such as developmental delay, epilepsy, learning difficulties, and behavioral abnormalities. Benign tumor-like lesions such as nonossifying fibromas of the long bones and giant cell granulomas of the jaws have repeatedly been observed and appear to be age-dependent, becoming a common manifestation in individuals aged 5 years or older (summary by Boppudi et al., 2016).

Vitamin D hydroxylation-deficient rickets type 1B (VDDR1B) is caused by a defect in vitamin D 25-hydroxylation (Molin et al., 2017). The major function of vitamin D is to maintain calcium and phosphate levels in the normal range to support metabolic functions, neuromuscular transmission, and bone mineralization. Disorders of vitamin D metabolism or action lead to defective bone mineralization and clinical features including intestinal malabsorption of calcium, hypocalcemia, secondary hyperparathyroidism, increased renal clearance of phosphorus, and hypophosphatemia. The combination of hypocalcemia and hypophosphatemia causes impaired mineralization of bone that results in rickets and osteomalacia (summary by Liberman and Marx, 2001). Rickets can occur because of inadequate dietary intake or sun exposure or because of genetic disorders. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is taken in the diet or synthesized in the skin from 7-dehydrocholesterol by ultraviolet irradiation. For vitamin D to be active, it needs to be converted to its active form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Vitamin D is transported in the blood by the vitamin D binding protein (DBP; 139200) to the liver, where vitamin D 25-hydroxylase (CYP2R1; 608713) is the key enzyme for 25-hydroxylation. Vitamin D 25(OH)D3, the major circulating form of vitamin D, is then transported to the kidney, where 25(OH)D3 is hydroxylated at the position of carbon 1 of the A ring, resulting in the active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) (summary by Christakos et al., 2010).

Isolated complex I deficiency is a rare inborn error of metabolism due to mutations in nuclear or mitochondrial genes encoding subunits or assembly factors of the human mitochondrial complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase) and is characterized by a wide range of manifestations including marked and often fatal lactic acidosis, cardiomyopathy, leukoencephalopathy, pure myopathy and hepatopathy with tubulopathy. Among the numerous clinical phenotypes observed are Leigh syndrome, Leber hereditary optic neuropathy and MELAS syndrome (see these terms).

X-linked mental retardation, Schimke type, is characterised by intellectual deficit, growth retardation with short stature, deafness and ophthalmoplegia. Choreoathetosis with muscle spasticity generally appears during childhood. It has been described in four boys, three of whom were from the same family. Transmission is X-linked.

Heme oxygenase-1 deficiency (HMOX1D) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder with a complex clinical presentation including direct antibody negative hemolytic anemia, low bilirubin, and hyperinflammation (summary by Chau et al., 2020). Other features may include asplenia and nephritis (Radhakrishnan et al., 2011).

The constitutional deletion of chromosome 1p36 results in a syndrome with multiple congenital anomalies and mental retardation (Shapira et al., 1997). Monosomy 1p36 is the most common terminal deletion syndrome in humans, occurring in 1 in 5,000 births (Shaffer and Lupski, 2000; Heilstedt et al., 2003). See also neurodevelopmental disorder with or without anomalies of the brain, eye, or heart (NEDBEH; 616975), which shows overlapping features and is caused by heterozygous mutation in the RERE gene (605226) on proximal chromosome 1p36. See also Radio-Tartaglia syndrome (RATARS; 619312), caused by mutation in the SPEN gene (613484) on chromosome 1p36, which shows overlapping features.

Alpha-thalassemia X-linked intellectual disability (ATR-X) syndrome is characterized by distinctive craniofacial features, genital anomalies, hypotonia, and mild-to-profound developmental delay / intellectual disability (DD/ID). Craniofacial abnormalities include small head circumference, telecanthus or widely spaced eyes, short triangular nose, tented upper lip, and thick or everted lower lip with coarsening of the facial features over time. While all affected individuals have a normal 46,XY karyotype, genital anomalies comprise a range from hypospadias and undescended testicles, to severe hypospadias and ambiguous genitalia, to normal-appearing female external genitalia. Alpha-thalassemia, observed in about 75% of affected individuals, is mild and typically does not require treatment. Osteosarcoma has been reported in a few males with germline pathogenic variants.

FGFR1-related Hartsfield syndrome comprises two core features: holoprosencephaly (HPE) spectrum disorder and ectrodactyly spectrum disorder. HPE spectrum disorder, resulting from failed or incomplete forebrain division early in gestation, includes alobar, semilobar, or lobar HPE. Other observed midline brain malformations include corpus callosum agenesis, absent septum pellucidum, absent olfactory bulbs and tracts, and vermian hypoplasia. Other findings associated with the HPE spectrum such as craniofacial dysmorphism, neurologic issues (developmental delay, spasticity, seizures, hypothalamic dysfunction), feeding problems, and endocrine issues (hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and central insipidus diabetes) are common. Ectrodactyly spectrum disorders are unilateral or bilateral malformations of the hands and/or feet characterized by a median cleft of hand or foot due to absence of the longitudinal central rays (also called split-hand/foot malformation). The number of digits on the right and left can vary. Polydactyly and syndactyly can also be seen.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

MECP2 duplication syndrome is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by early-onset hypotonia, feeding difficulty, gastrointestinal manifestations including gastroesophageal reflux and constipation, delayed psychomotor development leading to severe intellectual disability, poor speech development, progressive spasticity, recurrent respiratory infections (in ~75% of affected individuals), and seizures (in ~50%). MECP2 duplication syndrome is 100% penetrant in males. Occasionally females have been described with a MECP2 duplication and a range of findings from mild intellectual disability to a phenotype similar to that seen in males. In addition to the core features, autistic behaviors, nonspecific neuroradiologic findings on brain MRI, mottled skin, and urogenital anomalies have been observed in several affected boys.

The nephronophthisis (NPH) phenotype is characterized by reduced renal concentrating ability, chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, cystic renal disease, and progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) before age 30 years. Three age-based clinical subtypes are recognized: infantile, juvenile, and adolescent/adult. Infantile NPH can present in utero with oligohydramnios sequence (limb contractures, pulmonary hypoplasia, and facial dysmorphisms) or postnatally with renal manifestations that progress to ESRD before age 3 years. Juvenile NPH, the most prevalent subtype, typically presents with polydipsia and polyuria, growth retardation, chronic iron-resistant anemia, or other findings related to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Hypertension is typically absent due to salt wasting. ESRD develops at a median age of 13 years. Ultrasound findings are increased echogenicity, reduced corticomedullary differentiation, and renal cysts (in 50% of affected individuals). Histologic findings include tubulointerstitial fibrosis, thickened and disrupted tubular basement membrane, sporadic corticomedullary cysts, and normal or reduced kidney size. Adolescent/adult NPH is clinically similar to juvenile NPH, but ESRD develops at a median age of 19 years. Within a subtype, inter- and intrafamilial variability in rate of progression to ESRD is considerable. Approximately 80%-90% of individuals with the NPH phenotype have no extrarenal features (i.e., they have isolated NPH); ~10%-20% have extrarenal manifestations that constitute a recognizable syndrome (e.g., Joubert syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Jeune syndrome and related skeletal disorders, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Senior-Løken syndrome, Leber congenital amaurosis, COACH syndrome, and oculomotor apraxia, Cogan type).

Seckel syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by growth retardation, microcephaly with mental retardation, and a characteristic facial appearance (Borglum et al., 2001). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Seckel syndrome, see SCKL1 (210600).

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is characterized by: Acute sun sensitivity (severe sunburn with blistering, persistent erythema on minimal sun exposure) with marked freckle-like pigmentation of the face before age two years; Sunlight-induced ocular involvement (photophobia, severe keratitis, atrophy of the skin of the lids, ocular surface neoplasms); Greatly increased risk of sunlight-induced cutaneous neoplasms (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma) within the first decade of life. Approximately 25% of affected individuals have neurologic manifestations (acquired microcephaly, diminished or absent deep tendon stretch reflexes, progressive sensorineural hearing loss, progressive cognitive impairment, and ataxia). The most common causes of death are skin cancer, neurologic degeneration, and internal cancer. The median age at death in persons with XP with neurodegeneration (29 years) was found to be younger than that in persons with XP without neurodegeneration (37 years).

Approximately 10% of patients with congenital hypothyroidism harbor inborn errors of metabolism in one of the steps for thyroid hormone synthesis in thyrocytes (Vono-Toniolo et al., 2005). Dyshormonogenesis can be caused by recessive defects at any of the steps required for normal thyroid hormone synthesis. In untreated patients thyroid dyshormonogenesis is typically associated with goitrous enlargement of the thyroid secondary to long-term thyrotropin (TSH; see 188540) stimulation. Park and Chatterjee (2005) reviewed the genetics of primary congenital hypothyroidism, summarizing the different phenotypes associated with known genetic defects and proposing an algorithm for investigating the genetic basis of the disorder. Genetic Heterogeneity of Thyroid Dyshormonogenesis Other forms of thyroid hormone dysgenesis include TDH2A (274500), caused by mutation in the thyroid peroxidase gene (TPO; 606765) on 2p25; Pendred syndrome, a form of thyroid hormone dysgenesis associated with deafness (TDH2B; 274600) and caused by mutation in the SLC26A4 gene (605646) on 7q31; TDH3 (274700), caused by mutation in the thyroglobulin gene (TG; 188450) on 8q24; TDH4 (274800), caused by mutation in the iodotyrosine deiodinase gene (IYD; 612025) on 6q25; TDH5 (274900), caused by mutation in the DUOXA2 gene (612772) on 15q21; and TDH6 (607200), caused by mutation in the DUOX2 gene (606759) on 15q21.

An increased concentration of threonine in the blood.

Patients with mutations in the receptor for insulin-like growth factor I show intrauterine growth retardation and postnatal growth failure, resulting in short stature and microcephaly. Other features may include delayed bone age, developmental delay, and dysmorphic features.

Kowarski syndrome, or short stature associated with bioinactive growth hormone, is characterized clinically by normal or slightly increased GH secretion, pathologically low IGF1 (147440) levels, and normal catch-up growth on GH replacement therapy (Besson et al., 2005).

MPV17-related mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) maintenance defect presents in the vast majority of affected individuals as an early-onset encephalohepatopathic (hepatocerebral) disease that is typically associated with mtDNA depletion, particularly in the liver. A later-onset neuromyopathic disease characterized by myopathy and neuropathy, and associated with multiple mtDNA deletions in muscle, has also rarely been described. MPV17-related mtDNA maintenance defect, encephalohepatopathic form is characterized by: Hepatic manifestations (liver dysfunction that typically progresses to liver failure, cholestasis, hepatomegaly, and steatosis); Neurologic involvement (developmental delay, hypotonia, microcephaly, and motor and sensory peripheral neuropathy); Gastrointestinal manifestations (gastrointestinal dysmotility, feeding difficulties, and failure to thrive); and Metabolic derangements (lactic acidosis and hypoglycemia). Less frequent manifestations include renal tubulopathy, nephrocalcinosis, and hypoparathyroidism. Progressive liver disease often leads to death in infancy or early childhood. Hepatocellular carcinoma has been reported.

Nathalie syndrome has characteristics of deafness, cataract, muscular atrophy, skeletal abnormalities, growth retardation, underdeveloped secondary sexual characteristics and electrocardiographic abnormalities. It has been described in a Dutch family: in three sisters (one named Nathalie) and their brother.

Any COFS syndrome in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the ERCC2 gene.

Hereditary hypophosphatemic rickets with hypercalciuria (HHRH) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by the presence of hypophosphatemia secondary to renal phosphate wasting, radiographic and/or histologic evidence of rickets, limb deformities, muscle weakness, and bone pain. HHRH is distinct from other forms of hypophosphatemic rickets in that affected individuals present with hypercalciuria due to increased serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels and increased intestinal calcium absorption (summary by Bergwitz et al., 2006).

Citrin deficiency can manifest in newborns or infants as neonatal intrahepatic cholestasis caused by citrin deficiency (NICCD), in older children as failure to thrive and dyslipidemia caused by citrin deficiency (FTTDCD), and in adults as recurrent hyperammonemia with neuropsychiatric symptoms in citrullinemia type II (CTLN2). Often citrin deficiency is characterized by strong preference for protein-rich and/or lipid-rich foods and aversion to carbohydrate-rich foods. NICCD. Children younger than age one year have a history of low birth weight with growth restriction and transient intrahepatic cholestasis, hepatomegaly, diffuse fatty liver, and parenchymal cellular infiltration associated with hepatic fibrosis, variable liver dysfunction, hypoproteinemia, decreased coagulation factors, hemolytic anemia, and/or hypoglycemia. NICCD is generally not severe and symptoms often resolve by age one year with appropriate treatment, although liver transplantation has been required in rare instances. FTTDCD. Beyond age one year, many children with citrin deficiency develop a protein-rich and/or lipid-rich food preference and aversion to carbohydrate-rich foods. Clinical abnormalities may include growth restriction, hypoglycemia, pancreatitis, severe fatigue, anorexia, and impaired quality of life. Laboratory changes are dyslipidemia, increased lactate-to-pyruvate ratio, higher levels of urinary oxidative stress markers, and considerable deviation in tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle metabolites. One or more decades later, some individuals with NICCD or FTTDCD develop CTLN2. CTLN2. Presentation is sudden and usually between ages 20 and 50 years. Manifestations are recurrent hyperammonemia with neuropsychiatric symptoms including nocturnal delirium, aggression, irritability, hyperactivity, delusions, disorientation, restlessness, drowsiness, loss of memory, flapping tremor, convulsive seizures, and coma. Symptoms are often provoked by alcohol and sugar intake, medication, and/or surgery. Affected individuals may or may not have a prior history of NICCD or FTTDCD.

Molybdenum cofactor deficiency (MoCD) represents a spectrum, with some individuals experiencing significant signs and symptoms in the neonatal period and early infancy (termed early-onset or severe MoCD) and others developing signs and symptoms in childhood or adulthood (termed late-onset or mild MoCD). Individuals with early-onset MoCD typically present in the first days of life with severe encephalopathy, including refractory seizures, opisthotonos, axial and appendicular hypotonia, feeding difficulties, and apnea. Head imaging may demonstrate loss of gray and white matter differentiation, gyral swelling, sulci injury (typically assessed by evaluating the depth of focal lesional injury within the sulci), diffusely elevated T2-weighted signal, and panlobar diffusion restriction throughout the forebrain and midbrain with relative sparring of the brain stem. Prognosis for early-onset MoCD is poor, with about 75% succumbing in infancy to secondary complications of their neurologic disability (i.e., pneumonia). Late-onset MoCD is typically characterized by milder symptoms, such as acute neurologic decompensation in the setting of infection. Episodes vary in nature but commonly consist of altered mental status, dystonia, choreoathetosis, ataxia, nystagmus, and fluctuating hypotonia and hypertonia. These features may improve after resolution of the inciting infection or progress in a gradual or stochastic manner over the lifetime. Brain imaging may be normal or may demonstrate T2-weighted hyperintense or cystic lesions in the globus pallidus, thinning of the corpus callosum, and cerebellar atrophy.

Molybdenum cofactor deficiency (MoCD) represents a spectrum, with some individuals experiencing significant signs and symptoms in the neonatal period and early infancy (termed early-onset or severe MoCD) and others developing signs and symptoms in childhood or adulthood (termed late-onset or mild MoCD). Individuals with early-onset MoCD typically present in the first days of life with severe encephalopathy, including refractory seizures, opisthotonos, axial and appendicular hypotonia, feeding difficulties, and apnea. Head imaging may demonstrate loss of gray and white matter differentiation, gyral swelling, sulci injury (typically assessed by evaluating the depth of focal lesional injury within the sulci), diffusely elevated T2-weighted signal, and panlobar diffusion restriction throughout the forebrain and midbrain with relative sparring of the brain stem. Prognosis for early-onset MoCD is poor, with about 75% succumbing in infancy to secondary complications of their neurologic disability (i.e., pneumonia). Late-onset MoCD is typically characterized by milder symptoms, such as acute neurologic decompensation in the setting of infection. Episodes vary in nature but commonly consist of altered mental status, dystonia, choreoathetosis, ataxia, nystagmus, and fluctuating hypotonia and hypertonia. These features may improve after resolution of the inciting infection or progress in a gradual or stochastic manner over the lifetime. Brain imaging may be normal or may demonstrate T2-weighted hyperintense or cystic lesions in the globus pallidus, thinning of the corpus callosum, and cerebellar atrophy.

Disorders of intracellular cobalamin metabolism have a variable phenotype and age of onset that are influenced by the severity and location within the pathway of the defect. The prototype and best understood phenotype is cblC; it is also the most common of these disorders. The age of initial presentation of cblC spans a wide range: In utero with fetal presentation of nonimmune hydrops, cardiomyopathy, and intrauterine growth restriction. Newborns, who can have microcephaly, poor feeding, and encephalopathy. Infants, who can have poor feeding and slow growth, neurologic abnormality, and, rarely, hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). Toddlers, who can have poor growth, progressive microcephaly, cytopenias (including megaloblastic anemia), global developmental delay, encephalopathy, and neurologic signs such as hypotonia and seizures. Adolescents and adults, who can have neuropsychiatric symptoms, progressive cognitive decline, thromboembolic complications, and/or subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord.

The primary characteristics of the Frank-ter Haar syndrome (FTHS) are brachycephaly, wide fontanels, prominent forehead, hypertelorism, prominent eyes, macrocornea with or without glaucoma, full cheeks, small chin, bowing of the long bones, and flexion deformity of the fingers. Protruding, simple ears and prominent coccyx are also regarded as important diagnostic signs (summary by Maas et al., 2004). Borrone syndrome was described as a severe progressive multisystem disorder with features overlapping those of FTHS, including thick skin, acne conglobata, osteolysis, gingival hypertrophy, brachydactyly, camptodactyly, and mitral valve prolapse. Although it was initially thought to be a distinct phenotype, mutations in the FTHS-associated gene SH3PXD2B have been identified in patients diagnosed with Borrone syndrome. The earlier differential description was attributed to phenotypic variability as well as to differences in the ages at which patients were examined (Wilson et al., 2014).

Leukomelanoderma-infantilism-intellectual disability-hypodontia-hypotrichosis syndrome is a rare ectodermal dysplasia syndrome characterized by congenital generalized melanoleukoderma, hypodontia and hypotrichosis associated with infantilism, intellectual disability and growth delay. There have been no further descriptions in the literature since 1961.

Classic Joubert syndrome (JS) is characterized by three primary findings: A distinctive cerebellar and brain stem malformation called the molar tooth sign (MTS). Hypotonia. Developmental delays. Often these findings are accompanied by episodic tachypnea or apnea and/or atypical eye movements. In general, the breathing abnormalities improve with age, truncal ataxia develops over time, and acquisition of gross motor milestones is delayed. Cognitive abilities are variable, ranging from severe intellectual disability to normal. Additional findings can include retinal dystrophy, renal disease, ocular colobomas, occipital encephalocele, hepatic fibrosis, polydactyly, oral hamartomas, and endocrine abnormalities. Both intra- and interfamilial variation are seen.

The nephronophthisis (NPH) phenotype is characterized by reduced renal concentrating ability, chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, cystic renal disease, and progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) before age 30 years. Three age-based clinical subtypes are recognized: infantile, juvenile, and adolescent/adult. Infantile NPH can present in utero with oligohydramnios sequence (limb contractures, pulmonary hypoplasia, and facial dysmorphisms) or postnatally with renal manifestations that progress to ESRD before age 3 years. Juvenile NPH, the most prevalent subtype, typically presents with polydipsia and polyuria, growth retardation, chronic iron-resistant anemia, or other findings related to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Hypertension is typically absent due to salt wasting. ESRD develops at a median age of 13 years. Ultrasound findings are increased echogenicity, reduced corticomedullary differentiation, and renal cysts (in 50% of affected individuals). Histologic findings include tubulointerstitial fibrosis, thickened and disrupted tubular basement membrane, sporadic corticomedullary cysts, and normal or reduced kidney size. Adolescent/adult NPH is clinically similar to juvenile NPH, but ESRD develops at a median age of 19 years. Within a subtype, inter- and intrafamilial variability in rate of progression to ESRD is considerable. Approximately 80%-90% of individuals with the NPH phenotype have no extrarenal features (i.e., they have isolated NPH); ~10%-20% have extrarenal manifestations that constitute a recognizable syndrome (e.g., Joubert syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Jeune syndrome and related skeletal disorders, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Senior-Løken syndrome, Leber congenital amaurosis, COACH syndrome, and oculomotor apraxia, Cogan type).

Yunis-Varon syndrome (YVS) is a severe autosomal recessive disorder characterized by skeletal defects, including cleidocranial dysplasia and digital anomalies, and severe neurologic involvement with neuronal loss. Enlarged cytoplasmic vacuoles are found in neurons, muscle, and cartilage. The disorder is usually lethal in infancy (summary by Campeau et al., 2013).

Microhydranencephaly (MHAC) is a severe neurodevelopmental defect characterized by extreme microcephaly, profound motor and mental retardation, spasticity, and incomplete cerebral formation. Radiologic studies show gross dilation of the ventricles resulting from the absence of cerebral hemispheres or severe delay in their development, as well as hypoplasia of the corpus callosum, cerebellum, and brainstem (summary by Guven et al., 2012).

People with MCPH usually have few or no other features associated with the condition. Some have a narrow, sloping forehead; mild seizures; problems with attention or behavior; or short stature compared to others in their family. The condition typically does not affect any other major organ systems or cause other health problems.\n\nInfants with MCPH have an unusually small head circumference compared to other infants of the same sex and age. Head circumference is the distance around the widest part of the head, measured by placing a measuring tape above the eyebrows and ears and around the back of the head. Affected infants' brain volume is also smaller than usual, although they usually do not have any major abnormalities in the structure of the brain. The head and brain grow throughout childhood and adolescence, but they continue to be much smaller than normal.\n\nMCPH causes intellectual disability, which is typically mild to moderate and does not become more severe with age. Most affected individuals have delayed speech and language skills. Motor skills, such as sitting, standing, and walking, may also be mildly delayed.\n\nAutosomal recessive primary microcephaly (often shortened to MCPH, which stands for "microcephaly primary hereditary") is a condition in which infants are born with a very small head and a small brain. The term "microcephaly" comes from the Greek words for "small head."

Poikiloderma with neutropenia (PN) is characterized by an inflammatory eczematous rash (ages 6-12 months) followed by post-inflammatory poikiloderma (age >2 years) and chronic noncyclic neutropenia typically associated with recurrent sinopulmonary infections in the first two years of life and (often) bronchiectasis. There is increased risk for myelodysplastic syndrome and, rarely, acute myelogenous leukemia. Other ectodermal findings include nail dystrophy and palmar/plantar hyperkeratosis. Most affected individuals also have reactive airway disease and some have short stature, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, midfacial retrusion, calcinosis cutis, and non-healing skin ulcers.

Sengers syndrome is an autosomal recessive mitochondrial disorder characterized by congenital cataracts, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, skeletal myopathy, exercise intolerance, and lactic acidosis. Mental development is normal, but affected individuals may die early from cardiomyopathy (summary by Mayr et al., 2012). Skeletal muscle biopsies of 2 affected individuals showed severe mtDNA depletion (Calvo et al., 2012).

A type of central congenital hypothyroidism with characteristics of low levels of thyroid hormones due to insufficient release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) caused by pituitary resistance to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). It may or may not be observed from birth. The clinical manifestations are often subtle, probably as a result of trans-placental passage of some maternal thyroid hormone or due to the fact that many infants have some thyroid production of their own. More specific symptoms and signs often do not develop until several months of age. Common clinical features and signs include decreased activity and increased sleep, feeding difficulty and constipation, prolonged jaundice. Slow linear growth and developmental delay are usually apparent by 4-6 months of age. Caused by mutations in the TRH receptor gene (TRHR; 8q23).

Majeed syndrome (MJDS) is an autosomal recessive pediatric multisystem autoinflammatory disorder characterized by chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis (CRMO) and congenital dyserythropoietic anemia; some patients may also develop neutrophilic dermatosis. Additional features may include fever, failure to thrive, and neutropenia. Laboratory studies show elevated inflammatory markers consistent with activation of the proinflammatory IL1 (147760) pathway (summary by Ferguson and El-Shanti, 2021). Genetic Heterogeneity of Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis See also CRMO2 (612852), caused by mutation in the IL1RN gene (147679) on chromosome 2q14; and CRMO3 (259680), caused by mutation in the IL1R1 gene (147810) on chromosome 2q12.

Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase deficiency (PHGDHD) is an autosomal recessive inborn error of L-serine biosynthesis that is characterized by congenital microcephaly, psychomotor retardation, and seizures (summary by Jaeken et al., 1996).

Congenital hypothyroidism can also occur as part of syndromes that affect other organs and tissues in the body. These forms of the condition are described as syndromic. Some common forms of syndromic hypothyroidism include Pendred syndrome, Bamforth-Lazarus syndrome, and brain-lung-thyroid syndrome.\n\nSigns and symptoms of congenital hypothyroidism result from the shortage of thyroid hormones. Affected babies may show no features of the condition, although some babies with congenital hypothyroidism are less active and sleep more than normal. They may have difficulty feeding and experience constipation. If untreated, congenital hypothyroidism can lead to intellectual disability and slow growth. In the United States and many other countries, all hospitals test newborns for congenital hypothyroidism. If treatment begins in the first two weeks after birth, infants usually develop normally.\n\nCongenital hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland fails to develop or function properly. In 80 to 85 percent of cases, the thyroid gland is absent, severely reduced in size (hypoplastic), or abnormally located. These cases are classified as thyroid dysgenesis. In the remainder of cases, a normal-sized or enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) is present, but production of thyroid hormones is decreased or absent. Most of these cases occur when one of several steps in the hormone synthesis process is impaired; these cases are classified as thyroid dyshormonogenesis. Less commonly, reduction or absence of thyroid hormone production is caused by impaired stimulation of the production process (which is normally done by a structure at the base of the brain called the pituitary gland), even though the process itself is unimpaired. These cases are classified as central (or pituitary) hypothyroidism.\n\nCongenital hypothyroidism is a partial or complete loss of function of the thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) that affects infants from birth (congenital). The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped tissue in the lower neck. It makes iodine-containing hormones that play an important role in regulating growth, brain development, and the rate of chemical reactions in the body (metabolism). People with congenital hypothyroidism have lower-than-normal levels of these important hormones.

Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome is a congenital malformation syndrome characterized by pre- and postnatal growth deficiency, developmental disability of variable degree, characteristic craniofacial features ('Greek warrior helmet' appearance of the nose, high forehead, prominent glabella, hypertelorism, high-arched eyebrows, protruding eyes, epicanthal folds, short philtrum, distinct mouth with downturned corners, and micrognathia), and a seizure disorder (Battaglia et al., 2008).

Dihyropyrimidine dehydrogenase deficiency (DPYDD) shows large phenotypic variability, ranging from no symptoms to a convulsive disorder with motor and mental retardation in homozygous patients. In addition, homozygous and heterozygous mutation carriers can develop severe toxicity after the administration of the antineoplastic drug 5-fluorouracil (5FU), which is also catabolized by the DPYD enzyme. This is an example of a pharmacogenetic disorder (Van Kuilenburg et al., 1999). Since there is no correlation between genotype and phenotype in DPD deficiency, it appears that the deficiency is a necessary, but not sufficient, prerequisite for the development of clinical abnormalities (Van Kuilenburg et al., 1999; Enns et al., 2004).

Autosomal recessive osteopetrosis-5 (OPTB5) is a form of infantile malignant osteopetrosis, characterized by defective osteoclast function resulting in decreased bone resorption and generalized osteosclerosis. Defective resorption causes development of densely sclerotic fragile bones and progressive obliteration of the marrow spaces and cranial foramina. Marrow obliteration is associated with extramedullary hematopoiesis and hepatosplenomegaly, and results in anemia and thrombocytopenia, whereas nerve entrapment accounts for progressive blindness and hearing loss. Other major manifestations include failure to thrive, pathologic fractures, and increased infection rate. Most affected children succumb to severe bone marrow failure and overwhelming infection in the first few years of life (summary by Quarello et al., 2004).

The spectrum of CLCN7-related osteopetrosis includes infantile malignant CLCN7-related autosomal recessive osteopetrosis (ARO), intermediate autosomal osteopetrosis (IAO), and autosomal dominant osteopetrosis type II (ADOII; Albers-Schönberg disease). ARO. Onset is at birth. Findings may include: fractures; reduced growth; sclerosis of the skull base (with or without choanal stenosis or hydrocephalus) resulting in optic nerve compression, facial palsy, and hearing loss; absence of the bone marrow cavity resulting in severe anemia and thrombocytopenia; dental abnormalities, odontomas, and risk for mandibular osteomyelitis; and hypocalcemia with tetanic seizures and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Without treatment maximal life span in ARO is ten years. IAO. Onset is in childhood. Findings may include: fractures after minor trauma, characteristic skeletal radiographic changes found incidentally, mild anemia, and occasional visual impairment secondary to optic nerve compression. Life expectancy in IAO is usually normal. ADOII. Onset is usually late childhood or adolescence. Findings may include: fractures (in any long bone and/or the posterior arch of a vertebra), scoliosis, hip osteoarthritis, and osteomyelitis of the mandible or septic osteitis or osteoarthritis elsewhere. Cranial nerve compression is rare.

Proximal renal tubular acidosis-ocular anomaly syndrome (PRTAO) is a rare autosomal recessive systemic disease resulting from isolated impairment of bicarbonate (HCO3-) reabsorption in the proximal renal tubules, which is characterized by a decreased renal HCO3- threshold. Affected individuals exhibit stunted growth and eye anomalies, including band keratopathy, cataracts, and glaucoma. Affected individuals may also exhibit impaired intellectual development and dental defects (Igarashi et al., 2001; Inatomi et al., 2004; Dinour et al., 2004).

GNPTAB-related disorders comprise the phenotypes mucolipidosis II (ML II) and mucolipidosis IIIa/ß (ML IIIa/ß), and phenotypes intermediate between ML II and ML IIIa/ß. ML II is evident at birth and slowly progressive; death most often occurs in early childhood. Orthopedic abnormalities present at birth may include thoracic deformity, kyphosis, clubfeet, deformed long bones, and/or dislocation of the hip(s). Growth often ceases in the second year of life; contractures develop in all large joints. The skin is thickened, facial features are coarse, and gingiva are hypertrophic. All children have cardiac involvement, most commonly thickening and insufficiency of the mitral valve and, less frequently, the aortic valve. Progressive mucosal thickening narrows the airways, and gradual stiffening of the thoracic cage contributes to respiratory insufficiency, the most common cause of death. ML IIIa/ß becomes evident at about age three years with slow growth rate and short stature; joint stiffness and pain initially in the shoulders, hips, and fingers; gradual mild coarsening of facial features; and normal to mildly impaired cognitive development. Pain from osteoporosis becomes more severe during adolescence. Cardiorespiratory complications (restrictive lung disease, thickening and insufficiency of the mitral and aortic valves, left and/or right ventricular hypertrophy) are common causes of death, typically in early to middle adulthood. Phenotypes intermediate between ML II and ML IIIa/ß are characterized by physical growth in infancy that resembles that of ML II and neuromotor and speech development that resemble that of ML IIIa/ß.

Any hypothyroidism, congenital, nongoitrous in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the NKX2-5 gene.

This syndrome is characterized by severe hypotonia, lactic acidemia and congenital hyperammonemia. It has been described in three newborns born to consanguineous parents. Ultrasound examination during the 36th week of pregnancy revealed generalized edema. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and tubulopathy developed within the first week of life and the infants died within the first month. The activities of enzymes in the mitochondrial respiratory chain were reduced in the muscles of the patients. Mutations were identified in the MRPS22 gene on chromosome 3q23, encoding a mitochondrial ribosomal protein

22q11.2 duplication is a condition caused by an extra copy of a small piece of chromosome 22. The duplication occurs near the middle of the chromosome at a location designated q11.2.\n\nThe features of this condition vary widely, even among members of the same family. Affected individuals may have developmental delay, intellectual disability, slow growth leading to short stature, and weak muscle tone (hypotonia). Many people with the duplication have no apparent physical or intellectual disabilities.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is characterized by a profound normochromic and usually macrocytic anemia with normal leukocytes and platelets, congenital malformations in up to 50%, and growth deficiency in 30% of affected individuals. The hematologic complications occur in 90% of affected individuals during the first year of life. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from a mild form (e.g., mild anemia or no anemia with only subtle erythroid abnormalities, physical malformations without anemia) to a severe form of fetal anemia resulting in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. DBA is associated with an increased risk for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and solid tumors including osteogenic sarcoma.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is characterized by a profound normochromic and usually macrocytic anemia with normal leukocytes and platelets, congenital malformations in up to 50%, and growth deficiency in 30% of affected individuals. The hematologic complications occur in 90% of affected individuals during the first year of life. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from a mild form (e.g., mild anemia or no anemia with only subtle erythroid abnormalities, physical malformations without anemia) to a severe form of fetal anemia resulting in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. DBA is associated with an increased risk for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and solid tumors including osteogenic sarcoma.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is characterized by a profound normochromic and usually macrocytic anemia with normal leukocytes and platelets, congenital malformations in up to 50%, and growth deficiency in 30% of affected individuals. The hematologic complications occur in 90% of affected individuals during the first year of life. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from a mild form (e.g., mild anemia or no anemia with only subtle erythroid abnormalities, physical malformations without anemia) to a severe form of fetal anemia resulting in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. DBA is associated with an increased risk for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and solid tumors including osteogenic sarcoma.

Autosomal recessive osteopetrosis-7 (OPTB7) is an osteoclast-poor form of osteopetrosis with hypogammaglobulinemia. Clinical features include visual impairment, recurrent respiratory infections, poor growth, developmental delay, and increased bone density (Guerrini et al., 2008). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive osteopetrosis, see OPTB1 (259700).

Three M syndrome is characterized by severe pre- and postnatal growth deficiency (final height 5-6 SD below the mean; i.e., 120-130 cm), characteristic facies, and normal intelligence. Additional features of three M syndrome include short broad neck, prominent trapezii, deformed sternum, short thorax, square shoulders, winged scapulae, hyperlordosis, short fifth fingers, prominent heels, and loose joints. Males with three M syndrome have hypogonadism and occasionally hypospadias.

Classic Joubert syndrome (JS) is characterized by three primary findings: A distinctive cerebellar and brain stem malformation called the molar tooth sign (MTS). Hypotonia. Developmental delays. Often these findings are accompanied by episodic tachypnea or apnea and/or atypical eye movements. In general, the breathing abnormalities improve with age, truncal ataxia develops over time, and acquisition of gross motor milestones is delayed. Cognitive abilities are variable, ranging from severe intellectual disability to normal. Additional findings can include retinal dystrophy, renal disease, ocular colobomas, occipital encephalocele, hepatic fibrosis, polydactyly, oral hamartomas, and endocrine abnormalities. Both intra- and interfamilial variation are seen.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is characterized by a profound normochromic and usually macrocytic anemia with normal leukocytes and platelets, congenital malformations in up to 50%, and growth deficiency in 30% of affected individuals. The hematologic complications occur in 90% of affected individuals during the first year of life. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from a mild form (e.g., mild anemia or no anemia with only subtle erythroid abnormalities, physical malformations without anemia) to a severe form of fetal anemia resulting in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. DBA is associated with an increased risk for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and solid tumors including osteogenic sarcoma.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is characterized by a profound normochromic and usually macrocytic anemia with normal leukocytes and platelets, congenital malformations in up to 50%, and growth deficiency in 30% of affected individuals. The hematologic complications occur in 90% of affected individuals during the first year of life. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from a mild form (e.g., mild anemia or no anemia with only subtle erythroid abnormalities, physical malformations without anemia) to a severe form of fetal anemia resulting in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. DBA is associated with an increased risk for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and solid tumors including osteogenic sarcoma.

Noonan syndrome (NS) is characterized by characteristic facies, short stature, congenital heart defect, and developmental delay of variable degree. Other findings can include broad or webbed neck, unusual chest shape with superior pectus carinatum and inferior pectus excavatum, cryptorchidism, varied coagulation defects, lymphatic dysplasias, and ocular abnormalities. Although birth length is usually normal, final adult height approaches the lower limit of normal. Congenital heart disease occurs in 50%-80% of individuals. Pulmonary valve stenosis, often with dysplasia, is the most common heart defect and is found in 20%-50% of individuals. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, found in 20%-30% of individuals, may be present at birth or develop in infancy or childhood. Other structural defects include atrial and ventricular septal defects, branch pulmonary artery stenosis, and tetralogy of Fallot. Up to one fourth of affected individuals have mild intellectual disability, and language impairments in general are more common in NS than in the general population.

LTBP4-related cutis laxa is characterized by cutis laxa, early childhood-onset pulmonary emphysema, peripheral pulmonary artery stenosis, and other evidence of a generalized connective tissue disorder such as inguinal hernias and hollow visceral diverticula (e.g., intestine, bladder). Other manifestations can include pyloric stenosis, diaphragmatic hernia, rectal prolapse, gastrointestinal elongation/tortuosity, cardiovascular abnormality, pulmonary hypertension, hypotonia and frequent pulmonary infections. Bladder diverticula and hydronephrosis are common. Early demise has been associated with pulmonary emphysema.

An autosomal recessive condition caused by mutation(s) in the IL10RA gene, encoding interleukin-10 receptor subunit alpha. It is characterized by early-onset chronic relapsing intestinal inflammation.

Nijmegen breakage syndrome-like disorder (NBSLD) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe prenatal growth retardation and persistent postnatal growth restriction, congenital microcephaly, borderline to mildly impaired intellectual development, normal sexual development, and radioresistant DNA synthesis with no immunodeficiency, myelodysplasia, or early neurodegeneration (summary by Ragamin et al., 2020).

G6PC3 deficiency is characterized by severe congenital neutropenia which occurs in a phenotypic continuum that includes the following: Isolated severe congenital neutropenia (nonsyndromic). Classic G6PC3 deficiency (severe congenital neutropenia plus cardiovascular and/or urogenital abnormalities). Severe G6PC3 deficiency (classic G6PC3 deficiency plus involvement of non-myeloid hematopoietic cell lines, additional extra-hematologic features, and pulmonary hypertension; known as Dursun syndrome). Neutropenia usually presents with recurrent bacterial infections in the first few months of life. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), failure to thrive (FTT), and poor postnatal growth are common. Other findings in classic and severe G6PC3 deficiency can include inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) resembling Crohn's disease, and endocrine disorders (growth hormone deficiency, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, and delayed puberty).

Phosphorylase kinase (PhK) deficiency causing glycogen storage disease type IX (GSD IX) results from deficiency of the enzyme phosphorylase b kinase, which has a major regulatory role in the breakdown of glycogen. The two types of PhK deficiency are liver PhK deficiency (characterized by early childhood onset of hepatomegaly and growth restriction, and often, but not always, fasting ketosis and hypoglycemia) and muscle PhK deficiency, which is considerably rarer (characterized by any of the following: exercise intolerance, myalgia, muscle cramps, myoglobinuria, and progressive muscle weakness). While symptoms and biochemical abnormalities of liver PhK deficiency were thought to improve with age, it is becoming evident that affected individuals need to be monitored for long-term complications such as liver fibrosis and cirrhosis.

Congenital disorder of glycosylation type It (CDG1T) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a wide range of clinical manifestations and severity. The most common features include cleft lip and bifid uvula, apparent at birth, followed by hepatopathy, intermittent hypoglycemia, short stature, and exercise intolerance, often accompanied by increased serum creatine kinase. Less common features include rhabdomyolysis, dilated cardiomyopathy, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (summary by Tegtmeyer et al., 2014). For a discussion of the classification of CDGs, see CDG1A (212065).

Glycogen storage disease type I (GSDI) is characterized by accumulation of glycogen and fat in the liver and kidneys resulting in hepatomegaly and nephromegaly. Severely affected infants present in the neonatal period with severe hypoglycemia due to fasting intolerance. More commonly, untreated infants present at age three to four months with hepatomegaly, severe hypoglycemia with or without seizures, lactic acidosis, hyperuricemia, and hypertriglyceridemia. Affected children typically have doll-like faces with full cheeks, relatively thin extremities, short stature, and a protuberant abdomen. Xanthoma and diarrhea may be present. Impaired platelet function and development of reduced or dysfunctional von Willebrand factor can lead to a bleeding tendency with frequent epistaxis and menorrhagia in females. Individuals with untreated GSDIb are more likely to develop impaired neutrophil and monocyte function as well as chronic neutropenia resulting in recurrent bacterial infections, gingivitis, periodontitis, and genital and intestinal ulcers. Long-term complications of untreated GSDI include short stature, osteoporosis, delayed puberty, renal disease (including proximal and distal renal tubular acidosis, renal stones, and renal failure), gout, systemic hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, hepatic adenomas with potential for malignancy, pancreatitis, and polycystic ovaries. Seizures and cognitive impairment may occur in individuals with prolonged periods of hypoglycemia. Normal growth and puberty are expected in treated children. Most affected individuals live into adulthood.

Ring chromosome 14 syndrome is a condition characterized by seizures and intellectual disability. Recurrent seizures (epilepsy) develop in infancy or early childhood. In many cases, the seizures are resistant to treatment with anti-epileptic drugs. Most people with ring chromosome 14 syndrome also have some degree of intellectual disability or learning problems. Development may be delayed, particularly the development of speech and of motor skills such as sitting, standing, and walking.\n\nAdditional features of ring chromosome 14 syndrome can include slow growth and short stature, a small head (microcephaly), puffy hands and/or feet caused by a buildup of fluid (lymphedema), and subtle differences in facial features. Some affected individuals have problems with their immune system that lead to recurrent infections, especially involving the respiratory system. Abnormalities of the retina, the specialized tissue at the back of the eye that detects light and color, have also been reported in some people with this condition. These changes typically do not affect vision. Major birth defects are rarely seen with ring chromosome 14 syndrome.

CDG IIe is caused by a mutation that impairs the integrity of the conserved oligomeric Golgi (COG) complex and alters Golgi trafficking, resulting in the disruption of multiple glycosylation pathways. For a general discussion of CDGs, see CDG1A (212065).

Cystinosis comprises three allelic phenotypes: Nephropathic cystinosis in untreated children is characterized by renal Fanconi syndrome, poor growth, hypophosphatemic/calcipenic rickets, impaired glomerular function resulting in complete glomerular failure, and accumulation of cystine in almost all cells, leading to cellular dysfunction with tissue and organ impairment. The typical untreated child has short stature, rickets, and photophobia. Failure to thrive is generally noticed after approximately age six months; signs of renal tubular Fanconi syndrome (polyuria, polydipsia, dehydration, and acidosis) appear as early as age six months; corneal crystals can be present before age one year and are always present after age 16 months. Prior to the use of renal transplantation and cystine-depleting therapy, the life span in nephropathic cystinosis was no longer than ten years. With these interventions, affected individuals can survive at least into the mid-forties or fifties with satisfactory quality of life. Intermediate cystinosis is characterized by all the typical manifestations of nephropathic cystinosis, but onset is at a later age. Renal glomerular failure occurs in all untreated affected individuals, usually between ages 15 and 25 years. The non-nephropathic (ocular) form of cystinosis is characterized clinically only by photophobia resulting from corneal cystine crystal accumulation.

Leber congenital amaurosis is also associated with other vision problems, including an increased sensitivity to light (photophobia), involuntary movements of the eyes (nystagmus), and extreme farsightedness (hyperopia). The pupils, which usually expand and contract in response to the amount of light entering the eye, do not react normally to light. Instead, they expand and contract more slowly than normal, or they may not respond to light at all.\n\nA specific behavior called Franceschetti's oculo-digital sign is characteristic of Leber congenital amaurosis. This sign consists of affected individuals poking, pressing, and rubbing their eyes with a knuckle or finger. Poking their eyes often results in the sensation of flashes of light called phosphenes. Researchers suspect that this behavior may contribute to deep-set eyes in affected children.\n\nIn very rare cases, delayed development and intellectual disability have been reported in people with the features of Leber congenital amaurosis. Because of the visual loss, affected children may become isolated. Providing children with opportunities to play, hear, touch, understand and other early educational interventions may prevent developmental delays in children with Leber congenital amaurosis.\n\nAt least 20 genetic types of Leber congenital amaurosis have been described. The types are distinguished by their genetic cause, patterns of vision loss, and related eye abnormalities.\n\nLeber congenital amaurosis, also known as LCA, is an eye disorder that is present from birth (congenital). This condition primarily affects the retina, which is the specialized tissue at the back of the eye that detects light and color. People with this disorder typically have severe visual impairment beginning at birth or shortly afterward. The visual impairment tends to be severe and may worsen over time.

Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA) is characterized by a profound normochromic and usually macrocytic anemia with normal leukocytes and platelets, congenital malformations in up to 50%, and growth deficiency in 30% of affected individuals. The hematologic complications occur in 90% of affected individuals during the first year of life. The phenotypic spectrum ranges from a mild form (e.g., mild anemia or no anemia with only subtle erythroid abnormalities, physical malformations without anemia) to a severe form of fetal anemia resulting in nonimmune hydrops fetalis. DBA is associated with an increased risk for acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and solid tumors including osteogenic sarcoma.

X-linked Opitz G/BBB syndrome (X-OS) is a multiple-congenital-anomaly disorder characterized by facial anomalies (hypertelorism, prominent forehead, widow's peak, broad nasal bridge, anteverted nares), genitourinary abnormalities (hypospadias, cryptorchidism, and hypoplastic/bifid scrotum), and laryngotracheoesophageal defects. Developmental delay and intellectual disability are observed in about 50% of affected males. Cleft lip and/or palate are present in approximately 50% of affected individuals. Other malformations (present in <50% of individuals) include congenital heart defects, imperforate or ectopic anus, and midline brain defects (Dandy-Walker malformation and agenesis or hypoplasia of the corpus callosum and/or cerebellar vermis). Wide clinical variability occurs even among members of the same family. Female heterozygotes usually manifest hypertelorism only.

Oculocerebral hypopigmentation syndrome, Cross type is a rare congenital syndrome characterized by cutaneous and ocular hypopigmentation, various ocular anomalies (e.g. corneal and lens opacity, spastic ectropium, and/or nystagmus), growth deficiency, intellectual deficit and other progressive neurologic anomalies such as spastic tetraplegia, hyperreflexia, and/or athetoid movements. The clinical picture varies among patients and may also include other anomalies such as urinary tract abnormalities, Dandy-Walker malformations, and/or bilateral inguinal hernia.

16p12.2 recurrent deletion is characterized by variable clinical findings that do not constitute a recognizable syndrome. Of note, the significant bias in ascertainment of individuals undergoing clinical chromosomal microarray analysis (i.e., children with intellectual disability and developmental delay; individuals with schizophrenia) makes it difficult to accurately associate specific phenotypes with the 16p12.2 recurrent deletion. Findings commonly observed in children (probands) with this deletion include: developmental delay, cognitive impairment (ranging from mild to profound), growth impairment (including short stature), cardiac malformations, epilepsy, and psychiatric and/or behavioral problems. Other findings can include: hearing loss, dental abnormalities, renal and genital anomalies (the latter in males), and cleft palate ± cleft lip.

6q25 microdeletion syndrome is a recently described syndrome characterized by developmental delay, facial dysmorphism and hearing loss.

14q11.2 microdeletion syndrome is a recently described syndrome characterized by developmental delay, hypotonia and facial dysmorphism.

The nephronophthisis (NPH) phenotype is characterized by reduced renal concentrating ability, chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, cystic renal disease, and progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) before age 30 years. Three age-based clinical subtypes are recognized: infantile, juvenile, and adolescent/adult. Infantile NPH can present in utero with oligohydramnios sequence (limb contractures, pulmonary hypoplasia, and facial dysmorphisms) or postnatally with renal manifestations that progress to ESRD before age 3 years. Juvenile NPH, the most prevalent subtype, typically presents with polydipsia and polyuria, growth retardation, chronic iron-resistant anemia, or other findings related to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Hypertension is typically absent due to salt wasting. ESRD develops at a median age of 13 years. Ultrasound findings are increased echogenicity, reduced corticomedullary differentiation, and renal cysts (in 50% of affected individuals). Histologic findings include tubulointerstitial fibrosis, thickened and disrupted tubular basement membrane, sporadic corticomedullary cysts, and normal or reduced kidney size. Adolescent/adult NPH is clinically similar to juvenile NPH, but ESRD develops at a median age of 19 years. Within a subtype, inter- and intrafamilial variability in rate of progression to ESRD is considerable. Approximately 80%-90% of individuals with the NPH phenotype have no extrarenal features (i.e., they have isolated NPH); ~10%-20% have extrarenal manifestations that constitute a recognizable syndrome (e.g., Joubert syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Jeune syndrome and related skeletal disorders, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Senior-Løken syndrome, Leber congenital amaurosis, COACH syndrome, and oculomotor apraxia, Cogan type).

Myopathy, lactic acidosis, and sideroblastic anemia-2 (MLASA2) is an autosomal recessive disorder of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The disorder shows marked phenotypic variability: some patients have a severe multisystem disorder from infancy, including cardiomyopathy and respiratory insufficiency resulting in early death, whereas others present in the second or third decade of life with sideroblastic anemia and mild muscle weakness (summary by Riley et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of MLASA, see MLASA1 (600462).

The chromosome 16p12.2-p11.2 deletion syndrome is characterized phenotypically by dysmorphic facial features, feeding difficulties, recurrent ear infections, developmental delay, and cognitive impairment. Additional features, such as heart defects and short stature, are variable (Ballif et al., 2007; Battaglia et al., 2009). The pericentric region of chromosome 16, specifically involving 16p12-p11, is a structurally complex region enriched in repetitive sequence elements, rendering this region susceptible to deletion or rearrangement (Ballif et al., 2007). There are several phenotypes associated with variation in this region: see 611913 for a deletion or duplication at 16p11.2 associated with autism; see 136570 for discussion of a recurrent 520-kb deletion at 16p12.1 associated with developmental delay and craniofacial dysmorphism; and see 613444 for a 220-kb deletion at 16p11.2 associated with isolated severe early-onset obesity and obesity with developmental delay. Battaglia et al. (2009) emphasized that the region at chromosome 16p11.2 that confers susceptibility to autism (AUTS14; see 611913) is located more centromeric to and is distinct from the 16p12.2-p11.2 region involved in the multiple congenital anomalies and intellectual disability phenotype.

Noonan syndrome (NS) is characterized by characteristic facies, short stature, congenital heart defect, and developmental delay of variable degree. Other findings can include broad or webbed neck, unusual chest shape with superior pectus carinatum and inferior pectus excavatum, cryptorchidism, varied coagulation defects, lymphatic dysplasias, and ocular abnormalities. Although birth length is usually normal, final adult height approaches the lower limit of normal. Congenital heart disease occurs in 50%-80% of individuals. Pulmonary valve stenosis, often with dysplasia, is the most common heart defect and is found in 20%-50% of individuals. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, found in 20%-30% of individuals, may be present at birth or develop in infancy or childhood. Other structural defects include atrial and ventricular septal defects, branch pulmonary artery stenosis, and tetralogy of Fallot. Up to one fourth of affected individuals have mild intellectual disability, and language impairments in general are more common in NS than in the general population.

Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines (NSML) is a condition in which the cardinal features consist of lentigines, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, short stature, pectus deformity, and dysmorphic facial features including widely spaced eyes and ptosis. Multiple lentigines present as dispersed flat, black-brown macules, mostly on the face, neck, and upper part of the trunk with sparing of the mucosa. In general, lentigines do not appear until age four to five years but then increase to the thousands by puberty. Some individuals with NSML do not exhibit lentigines. Approximately 85% of affected individuals have heart defects, including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (typically appearing during infancy and sometimes progressive) and pulmonary valve stenosis. Postnatal growth restriction resulting in short stature occurs in fewer than 50% of affected persons, although most affected individuals have a height that is less than the 25th centile for age. Sensorineural hearing deficits, present in approximately 20% of affected individuals, are poorly characterized. Intellectual disability, typically mild, is observed in approximately 30% of persons with NSML.

The chromosome 13q14 deletion syndrome is characterized by retinoblastoma (180200), variable degrees of mental impairment, and characteristic facial features, including high forehead, prominent philtrum, and anteverted earlobes (summary by Caselli et al., 2007).

Dyskeratosis congenita and related telomere biology disorders (DC/TBD) are caused by impaired telomere maintenance resulting in short or very short telomeres. The phenotypic spectrum of telomere biology disorders is broad and includes individuals with classic dyskeratosis congenita (DC) as well as those with very short telomeres and an isolated physical finding. Classic DC is characterized by a triad of dysplastic nails, lacy reticular pigmentation of the upper chest and/or neck, and oral leukoplakia, although this may not be present in all individuals. People with DC/TBD are at increased risk for progressive bone marrow failure (BMF), myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myelogenous leukemia, solid tumors (usually squamous cell carcinoma of the head/neck or anogenital cancer), and pulmonary fibrosis. Other findings can include eye abnormalities (epiphora, blepharitis, sparse eyelashes, ectropion, entropion, trichiasis), taurodontism, liver disease, gastrointestinal telangiectasias, and avascular necrosis of the hips or shoulders. Although most persons with DC/TBD have normal psychomotor development and normal neurologic function, significant developmental delay is present in both forms; additional findings include cerebellar hypoplasia (Hoyeraal Hreidarsson syndrome) and bilateral exudative retinopathy and intracranial calcifications (Revesz syndrome and Coats plus syndrome). Onset and progression of manifestations of DC/TBD vary: at the mild end of the spectrum are those who have only minimal physical findings with normal bone marrow function, and at the severe end are those who have the diagnostic triad and early-onset BMF.

Dyskeratosis congenita and related telomere biology disorders (DC/TBD) are caused by impaired telomere maintenance resulting in short or very short telomeres. The phenotypic spectrum of telomere biology disorders is broad and includes individuals with classic dyskeratosis congenita (DC) as well as those with very short telomeres and an isolated physical finding. Classic DC is characterized by a triad of dysplastic nails, lacy reticular pigmentation of the upper chest and/or neck, and oral leukoplakia, although this may not be present in all individuals. People with DC/TBD are at increased risk for progressive bone marrow failure (BMF), myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myelogenous leukemia, solid tumors (usually squamous cell carcinoma of the head/neck or anogenital cancer), and pulmonary fibrosis. Other findings can include eye abnormalities (epiphora, blepharitis, sparse eyelashes, ectropion, entropion, trichiasis), taurodontism, liver disease, gastrointestinal telangiectasias, and avascular necrosis of the hips or shoulders. Although most persons with DC/TBD have normal psychomotor development and normal neurologic function, significant developmental delay is present in both forms; additional findings include cerebellar hypoplasia (Hoyeraal Hreidarsson syndrome) and bilateral exudative retinopathy and intracranial calcifications (Revesz syndrome and Coats plus syndrome). Onset and progression of manifestations of DC/TBD vary: at the mild end of the spectrum are those who have only minimal physical findings with normal bone marrow function, and at the severe end are those who have the diagnostic triad and early-onset BMF.

Nestor-Guillermo progeria syndrome (NGPS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by lipoatrophy, osteoporosis, and very severe osteolysis. Patients have no cardiovascular impairment, diabetes mellitus, or hypertriglyceridemia, but suffer profound skeletal abnormalities that affect their quality of life. Onset is after 2 years of age, and lifespan is relatively long (summary by Cabanillas et al., 2011).

Lissencephaly-4 with microcephaly (LIS4) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by lissencephaly, severe brain atrophy, extreme microcephaly (head circumference of more than 10 standard deviations (SD) below the mean), and profoundly impaired intellectual development. It has also been referred to as 'microlissencephaly' (summary by Bakircioglu et al., 2011 and Alkuraya et al., 2011). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of lissencephaly, see LIS1 (607432).

SUCLG1-related mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) depletion syndrome, encephalomyopathic form with methylmalonic aciduria is characterized in the majority of affected newborns by hypotonia, muscle atrophy, feeding difficulties, and lactic acidosis. Affected infants commonly manifest developmental delay / cognitive impairment, growth retardation / failure to thrive, hepatopathy, sensorineural hearing impairment, dystonia, and hypertonia. Notable findings in some affected individuals include hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, epilepsy, myoclonus, microcephaly, sleep disturbance, rhabdomyolysis, contractures, hypothermia, and/or hypoglycemia. Life span is shortened, with median survival of 20 months.

Ogden syndrome (OGDNS) is an X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by postnatal growth failure, severely delayed psychomotor development, variable dysmorphic features, and hypotonia. Many patients also have cardiac malformations or arrhythmias (summary by Popp et al., 2015).

Mitochondrial encephalo-cardio-myopathy due to <i>TMEM70</i> mutation is characterized by early neonatal onset of hypotonia, hypetrophic cardiomyopathy and apneic spells within hours after birth accompanied by lactic acidosis, hyperammonemia and 3-methylglutaconic aciduria.

Immunodeficiency, centromeric instability, and facial dysmorphism (ICF) syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by facial dysmorphism, immunoglobulin deficiency resulting in recurrent infections, and mental retardation. Laboratory studies of patient cells show hypomethylation of satellite regions of chromosomes 1, 9, and 16, as well as pericentromeric chromosomal instability in response to phytohemagglutinin stimulation (summary by de Greef et al., 2011). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of immunodeficiency-centromeric instability-facial anomalies syndrome, see ICF1 (242860).

Mosaic variegated aneuploidy syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by poor growth and variable phenotypic manifestations, such as facial dysmorphism and congenital heart defects, associated with mosaic aneuploidies resulting from defects in cell division (summary by Snape et al., 2011). See also MVA1 (257300), caused by mutation in the BUB1B gene (602860) on chromosome 15q15.

IMD31C is a disorder of immunologic dysregulation with highly variable manifestations resulting from autosomal dominant gain-of-function mutations in STAT1 (600555). Most patients present in infancy or early childhood with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC). Other highly variable features include recurrent bacterial, viral, fungal, and mycoplasmal infections, disseminated dimorphic fungal infections, enteropathy with villous atrophy, and autoimmune disorders, such as hypothyroidism or diabetes mellitus. A subset of patients show apparently nonimmunologic features, including osteopenia, delayed puberty, and intracranial aneurysms. Laboratory studies show increased activation of gamma-interferon (IFNG; 147570)-mediated inflammation (summary by Uzel et al., 2013 and Sampaio et al., 2013).

Three M syndrome is characterized by severe pre- and postnatal growth deficiency (final height 5-6 SD below the mean; i.e., 120-130 cm), characteristic facies, and normal intelligence. Additional features of three M syndrome include short broad neck, prominent trapezii, deformed sternum, short thorax, square shoulders, winged scapulae, hyperlordosis, short fifth fingers, prominent heels, and loose joints. Males with three M syndrome have hypogonadism and occasionally hypospadias.

The chromosome 8q21.11 deletion syndrome is characterized by impaired intellectual development and common facial dysmorphic features (summary by Palomares et al., 2011).

Autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia-12 is a neurologic disorder characterized by onset of generalized seizures in infancy, delayed psychomotor development with mental retardation, and cerebellar ataxia. Some patients may also show spasticity (summary by Mallaret et al., 2014).

Any autosomal recessive non-syndromic intellectual disability in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the LINS1 gene.

The nephronophthisis (NPH) phenotype is characterized by reduced renal concentrating ability, chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, cystic renal disease, and progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) before age 30 years. Three age-based clinical subtypes are recognized: infantile, juvenile, and adolescent/adult. Infantile NPH can present in utero with oligohydramnios sequence (limb contractures, pulmonary hypoplasia, and facial dysmorphisms) or postnatally with renal manifestations that progress to ESRD before age 3 years. Juvenile NPH, the most prevalent subtype, typically presents with polydipsia and polyuria, growth retardation, chronic iron-resistant anemia, or other findings related to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Hypertension is typically absent due to salt wasting. ESRD develops at a median age of 13 years. Ultrasound findings are increased echogenicity, reduced corticomedullary differentiation, and renal cysts (in 50% of affected individuals). Histologic findings include tubulointerstitial fibrosis, thickened and disrupted tubular basement membrane, sporadic corticomedullary cysts, and normal or reduced kidney size. Adolescent/adult NPH is clinically similar to juvenile NPH, but ESRD develops at a median age of 19 years. Within a subtype, inter- and intrafamilial variability in rate of progression to ESRD is considerable. Approximately 80%-90% of individuals with the NPH phenotype have no extrarenal features (i.e., they have isolated NPH); ~10%-20% have extrarenal manifestations that constitute a recognizable syndrome (e.g., Joubert syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Jeune syndrome and related skeletal disorders, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Senior-Løken syndrome, Leber congenital amaurosis, COACH syndrome, and oculomotor apraxia, Cogan type).

POLR3-related leukodystrophy, a hypomyelinating leukodystrophy with specific features on brain MRI, is characterized by varying combinations of four major clinical findings: Neurologic dysfunction, typically predominated by motor dysfunction (progressive cerebellar dysfunction, and to a lesser extent extrapyramidal [i.e., dystonia], pyramidal [i.e., spasticity] and cognitive dysfunctions). Abnormal dentition (delayed dentition, hypodontia, oligodontia, and abnormally placed or shaped teeth). Endocrine abnormalities such as short stature (in ~50% of individuals) with or without growth hormone deficiency, and more commonly, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism manifesting as delayed, arrested, or absent puberty. Ocular abnormality in the form of myopia, typically progressing over several years and becoming severe. POLR3-related leukodystrophy and 4H leukodystrophy are the two recognized terms for five previously described overlapping clinical phenotypes (initially described as distinct entities before their molecular basis was known). These include: Hypomyelination, hypodontia, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (4H syndrome); Ataxia, delayed dentition, and hypomyelination (ADDH); Tremor-ataxia with central hypomyelination (TACH); Leukodystrophy with oligodontia (LO); Hypomyelination with cerebellar atrophy and hypoplasia of the corpus callosum (HCAHC). Age of onset is typically in early childhood but later-onset cases have also been reported. An infant with Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch syndrome (neonatal progeroid syndrome) was recently reported to have pathogenic variants in POLR3A on exome sequencing. Confirmation of this as a very severe form of POLR3-related leukodystrophy awaits replication in other individuals with a clinical diagnosis of Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch syndrome.

The Zaki-Gleeson syndrome is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by profound mental retardation, severe microcephaly, poor growth, cerebellar hypoplasia, and second-degree cardiac conduction defects (Zaki et al., 2011).

Classic Joubert syndrome (JS) is characterized by three primary findings: A distinctive cerebellar and brain stem malformation called the molar tooth sign (MTS). Hypotonia. Developmental delays. Often these findings are accompanied by episodic tachypnea or apnea and/or atypical eye movements. In general, the breathing abnormalities improve with age, truncal ataxia develops over time, and acquisition of gross motor milestones is delayed. Cognitive abilities are variable, ranging from severe intellectual disability to normal. Additional findings can include retinal dystrophy, renal disease, ocular colobomas, occipital encephalocele, hepatic fibrosis, polydactyly, oral hamartomas, and endocrine abnormalities. Both intra- and interfamilial variation are seen.

Any hypothyroidism, congenital, nongoitrous in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the THRA gene.

ISQMR is a severe autosomal recessive disorder characterized by ichthyosis apparent from birth, profound psychomotor retardation with essentially no development, spastic quadriplegia, and seizures (summary by Aldahmesh et al., 2011).

Hyperglycinemia, lactic acidosis, and seizures (HGCLAS) is a severe autosomal recessive disorder characterized by onset of hypotonia and seizures associated with increased serum glycine and lactate in the first days of life. Affected individuals develop an encephalopathy or severely delayed psychomotor development, which may result in death in childhood. The disorder represents a form of 'variant' nonketotic hyperglycinemia and is distinct from classic nonketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH, or GCE; 605899), which is characterized by significantly increased CSF glycine. Several forms of 'variant' NKH, including HGCLAS, appear to result from defects of mitochondrial lipoate biosynthesis (summary by Baker et al., 2014).

Brain small vessel disease-2 is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by variable neurologic impairment resulting from disturbed vascular supply that leads to cerebral degeneration. The disorder is often associated with 'porencephaly' on brain imaging. Affected individuals typically have hemiplegia, seizures, and intellectual disability, although the severity is variable (summary by Yoneda et al., 2012). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of brain small vessel disease, see BSVD1 (175780).

The interstitial 16q22 deletion syndrome is a multiple congenital anomaly disorder associated with failure to thrive in infancy, poor growth, delayed psychomotor development, hypotonia, and dysmorphic features, including large anterior fontanel, high forehead, diastasis of the cranial sutures, broad nasal bridge, hypertelorism, low-set abnormal ears, and short neck. The phenotypic features and deletion sizes are variable, but deletion of 16q22 appears to be critical for manifestations of the syndrome (summary by Fujiwara et al., 1992).

CMO type II deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defect in the final biochemical step of aldosterone biosynthesis, the 18-hydroxylation of 18-hydroxycorticosterone (18-OHB) to aldosterone. This enzymatic defect results in decreased aldosterone and salt-wasting associated with an increased serum ratio of 18-OHB to aldosterone. In CMO II deficiency, aldosterone can be low or normal, but at the expense of increased secretion of 18-OHB. These patients have a low ratio of corticosterone to 18-OHB (Portrat-Doyen et al., 1998). The CYP11B2 gene product also catalyzes an earlier step in aldosterone biosynthesis: the 18-hydroxylation of corticosterone to 18-OHB. A defect in that enzymatic step results in CMO type I deficiency (204300), an allelic disorder with an overlapping phenotype but distinct biochemical features. In CMO I deficiency, aldosterone is undetectable, whereas its immediate precursor, 18-OHB, is low or normal (Portrat-Doyen et al., 1998).

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-1 (DEE1) is a severe form of epilepsy characterized by frequent tonic seizures or spasms beginning in infancy with a specific EEG finding of suppression-burst patterns, characterized by high-voltage bursts alternating with almost flat suppression phases. Approximately 75% of DEE1 patients progress to tonic spasms with clustering, arrest of psychomotor development, and hypsarrhythmia on EEG (Kato et al., 2007). DEE1 is part of a phenotypic spectrum of disorders caused by mutation in the ARX gene comprising a nearly continuous series of developmental disorders ranging from lissencephaly (LISX2; 300215) to Proud syndrome (300004) to infantile spasms without brain malformations (DEE) to syndromic (309510) and nonsyndromic (300419) mental retardation. Although males with ARX mutations are often more severely affected, female mutation carriers may also be affected (Kato et al., 2004; Wallerstein et al., 2008). Reviews Deprez et al. (2009) reviewed the genetics of epilepsy syndromes starting in the first year of life and included a diagnostic algorithm. Genetic Heterogeneity of Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathy Also see DEE2 (300672), caused by mutation in the CDKL5 gene (300203); DEE3 (609304), caused by mutation in the SLC25A22 gene (609302); DEE4 (612164), caused by mutation in the STXBP1 gene (602926); DEE5 (613477), caused by mutation in the SPTAN1 gene (182810); DEE6A (607208), also known as Dravet syndrome, caused by mutation in the SCN1A gene (182389); DEE6B (619317), also caused by mutation in the SCN1A gene; DEE7 (613720), caused by mutation in the KCNQ2 gene (602235); DEE8 (300607), caused by mutation in the ARHGEF9 gene (300429); DEE9 (300088), caused by mutation in the PCDH19 gene (300460); DEE10 (613402), caused by mutation in the PNKP gene (605610); DEE11 (613721), caused by mutation in the SCN2A gene (182390); DEE12 (613722), caused by mutation in the PLCB1 gene (607120); DEE13 (614558), caused by mutation in the SCN8A gene (600702); DEE14 (614959), caused by mutation in the KCNT1 gene (608167); DEE15 (615006), caused by mutation in the ST3GAL3 gene (606494); DEE16 (615338), caused by mutation in the TBC1D24 gene (613577); DEE17 (615473), caused by mutation in the GNAO1 gene (139311); DEE18 (615476), caused by mutation in the SZT2 gene (615463); DEE19 (615744), caused by mutation in the GABRA1 gene (137160); DEE20 (300868), caused by mutation in the PIGA gene (311770); DEE21 (615833), caused by mutation in the NECAP1 gene (611623); DEE22 (300896), caused by mutation in the SLC35A2 gene (314375); DEE23 (615859), caused by mutation in the DOCK7 gene (615730); DEE24 (615871), caused by mutation in the HCN1 gene (602780); DEE25 (615905), caused by mutation in the SLC13A5 gene (608305); DEE26 (616056), caused by mutation in the KCNB1 gene (600397); DEE27 (616139), caused by mutation in the GRIN2B gene (138252); DEE28 (616211), caused by mutation in the WWOX gene (605131); DEE29 (616339), caused by mutation in the AARS gene (601065); DEE30 (616341), caused by mutation in the SIK1 gene (605705); DEE31A (616346) and DEE31B (620352), caused by mutation in the DNM1 gene (602377); DEE32 (616366), caused by mutation in the KCNA2 gene (176262); DEE33 (616409), caused by mutation in the EEF1A2 gene (602959); DEE34 (616645), caused by mutation in the SLC12A5 gene (606726); DEE35 (616647), caused by mutation in the ITPA gene (147520); DEE36 (300884), caused by mutation in the ALG13 gene (300776); DEE37 (616981), caused by mutation in the FRRS1L gene (604574); DEE38 (617020), caused by mutation in the ARV1 gene (611647); DEE39 (612949), caused by mutation in the SLC25A12 gene (603667); DEE40 (617065), caused by mutation in the GUF1 gene (617064); DEE41 (617105), caused by mutation in the SLC1A2 gene (600300); DEE42 (617106), caused by mutation in the CACNA1A gene (601011); DEE43 (617113), caused by mutation in the GABRB3 gene (137192); DEE44 (617132), caused by mutation in the UBA5 gene (610552); DEE45 (617153), caused by mutation in the GABRB1 gene (137190); DEE46 (617162), caused by mutation in the GRIN2D gene (602717); DEE47 (617166), caused by mutation in the FGF12 gene (601513); DEE48 (617276), caused by mutation in the AP3B2 gene (602166); DEE49 (617281), caused by mutation in the DENND5A gene (617278); DEE50 (616457) caused by mutation in the CAD gene (114010); DEE51 (617339), caused by mutation in the MDH2 gene (154100); DEE52 (617350), caused by mutation in the SCN1B gene (600235); DEE53 (617389), caused by mutation in the SYNJ1 gene (604297); DEE54 (617391), caused by mutation in the HNRNPU gene (602869); DEE55 (617599), caused by mutation in the PIGP gene (605938); DEE56 (617665), caused by mutation in the YWHAG gene (605356); DEE57 (617771), caused by mutation in the KCNT2 gene (610044); DEE58 (617830), caused by mutation in the NTRK2 gene (600456); DEE59 (617904), caused by mutation in the GABBR2 gene (607340); DEE60 (617929), caused by mutation in the CNPY3 gene (610774); DEE61 (617933), caused by mutation in the ADAM22 gene (603709); DEE62 (617938), caused by mutation in the SCN3A gene (182391); DEE63 (617976), caused by mutation in the CPLX1 gene (605032); DEE64 (618004), caused by mutation in the RHOBTB2 gene (607352); DEE65 (618008), caused by mutation in the CYFIP2 gene (606323); DEE66 (618067), caused by mutation in the PACS2 gene (610423); DEE67 (618141), caused by mutation in the CUX2 gene (610648); DEE68 (618201), caused by mutation in the TRAK1 gene (608112); DEE69 (618285), caused by mutation in the CACNA1E gene (601013); DEE70 (618298) caused by mutation in the PHACTR1 gene (608723); DEE71 (618328), caused by mutation in the GLS gene (138280); DEE72 (618374), caused by mutation in the NEUROD2 gene (601725); DEE73 (618379), caused by mutation in the RNF13 gene (609247); DEE74 (618396), caused by mutation in the GABRG2 gene (137164); DEE75 (618437), caused by mutation in the PARS2 gene (612036); DEE76 (618468), caused by mutation in the ACTL6B gene (612458); DEE77 (618548), caused by mutation in the PIGQ gene (605754); DEE78 (618557), caused by mutation in the GABRA2 gene (137140); DEE79 (618559), caused by mutation in the GABRA5 gene (137142); DEE80 (618580), caused by mutation in the PIGB gene (604122); DEE81 (618663), caused by mutation in the DMXL2 gene (612186); DEE82 (618721), caused by mutation in the GOT2 gene (138150); DEE83 (618744), caused by mutation in the UGP2 gene (191760); DEE84 (618792), caused by mutation in the UGDH gene (603370); DEE85 (301044), caused by mutation in the SMC1A gene (300040); DEE86 (618910), caused by mutation in the DALRD3 gene (618904); DEE87 (618916), caused by mutation in the CDK19 gene (614720); DEE88 (618959), caused by mutation in the MDH1 gene (152400); DEE89 (619124), caused by mutation in the GAD1 gene (605363); DEE90 (301058), caused by mutation in the FGF13 gene (300070); DEE91 (617711), caused by mutation in the PPP3CA gene (114105); DEE92 (617829), caused by mutation in the GABRB2 gene (600232); DEE93 (618012), caused by mutation in the ATP6V1A gene (607027); DEE94 (615369), caused by mutation in the CHD2 gene (602119); DEE95 (618143), caused by mutation in the PIGS gene (610271); DEE96 (619340), caused by mutation in the NSF gene (601633); DEE97 (619561), caused by mutation in the iCELF2 gene (602538); DEE98 (619605), caused by mutation in the ATP1A2 gene (182340); DEE99 (619606), caused by mutation in the ATP1A3 gene (182350); DEE100 (619777), caused by mutation in the FBXO28 gene (609100); DEE101 (619814), caused by mutation in the GRIN1 gene (138249); DEE102 (619881), caused by mutation in the SLC38A3 gene (604437); DEE103 (619913), caused by mutation in the KCNC2 gene (176256); DEE104 (619970), caused by mutation in the ATP6V0A1 gene (192130); DEE105 (619983), caused by mutation in the HID1 gene (605752); DEE106 (620028), caused by mutation in the UFSP2 gene (611482); DEE107 (620033), caused by mutation in the NAPB gene (

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

Hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type VI (HSAN6) is a severe autosomal recessive disorder characterized by neonatal hypotonia, respiratory and feeding difficulties, lack of psychomotor development, and autonomic abnormalities including labile cardiovascular function, lack of corneal reflexes leading to corneal scarring, areflexia, and absent axonal flare response after intradermal histamine injection (summary by Edvardson et al., 2012). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy, see HSAN1 (162400).

SOFT syndrome is characterized by severely short long bones, peculiar facies associated with paucity of hair, and nail anomalies. Growth retardation is evident on prenatal ultrasound as early as the second trimester of pregnancy, and affected individuals reach a final stature consistent with a height age of 6 years to 8 years. Relative macrocephaly is present during early childhood but head circumference is markedly low by adulthood. Psychomotor development is normal. Facial dysmorphism includes a long, triangular face with prominent nose and small ears, and affected individuals have an unusual high-pitched voice. Clinodactyly, brachydactyly, and hypoplastic distal phalanges and fingernails are present in association with postpubertal sparse and short hair. Typical skeletal findings include short and thick long bones with mild irregular metaphyseal changes, short femoral necks, and hypoplastic pelvis and sacrum. All long bones of the hand are short, with major delay of carpal ossification and cone-shaped epiphyses. Vertebral body ossification is also delayed (summary by Sarig et al., 2012).

CDG2L is an autosomal recessive multisystem disorder apparent from birth or early infancy. It is characterized by poor growth, gastrointestinal and liver abnormalities, delayed psychomotor development, hypotonia, recurrent infections, hematologic abnormalities, increased bleeding tendency, and hyperhidrosis or hyperkeratosis. More variable features include nonspecific dysmorphic facial features and cardiac septal defects. The disorder often results in death in infancy or the first years of life (summary by Rymen et al., 2015). For a general discussion of CDGs, see CDG1A (212065) and CDG2A (212066).

EXOSC3 pontocerebellar hypoplasia (EXOSC3-PCH) is characterized by abnormalities in the posterior fossa and degeneration of the anterior horn cells. At birth, skeletal muscle weakness manifests as hypotonia (sometimes with congenital joint contractures) and poor feeding. In persons with prolonged survival, spasticity, dystonia, and seizures become evident. Within the first year of life respiratory insufficiency and swallowing difficulties are common. Intellectual disability is severe. Life expectancy ranges from a few weeks to adolescence. To date, 82 individuals (from 58 families) with EXOSC3-PCH have been described.

Common variable immunodeficiency-8 with autoimmunity is an autosomal recessive disorder of immune dysregulation. Affected individuals have early childhood onset of recurrent infections, particularly respiratory infections, and also develop variable autoimmune disorders, including idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, and inflammatory bowel disease. The presentation and phenotype are highly variable, even within families (summary by Lopez-Herrera et al., 2012 and Alangari et al., 2012). Immunologic findings are also variable and may include decreased B cells, hypogammaglobulinemia, and deficiency of CD4+ T regulatory (Treg) cells (Charbonnier et al., 2015). For a general description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of common variable immunodeficiency, see CVID1 (607594).

CDG2K is an autosomal recessive disorder with a variable phenotype. Affected individuals show psychomotor retardation and growth retardation, and most have short stature. Other features include dysmorphism, hypotonia, eye abnormalities, acquired microcephaly, hepatomegaly, and skeletal dysplasia. Serum transferrin analysis shows a CDG type II pattern (summary by Foulquier et al., 2012). For a general discussion of CDGs, see CDG1A (212065) and CDG2A (212066).

Hyperphosphatasia with impaired intellectual development syndrome-2 (HPMRS2) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by moderately to severely delayed psychomotor development, facial dysmorphism, brachytelephalangy, and increased serum alkaline phosphatase (hyperphosphatasia). Some patients may have additional features, such as cardiac septal defects or seizures (summary by Krawitz et al., 2012). The disorder is caused by a defect in glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) biosynthesis. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hyperphosphatasia with impaired intellectual development syndrome, see HPMRS1 (239300). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

Combined methylmalonic aciduria (MMA) and homocystinuria is a genetically heterogeneous metabolic disorder of cobalamin (cbl; vitamin B12) metabolism, which is essential for hematologic and neurologic function. Biochemically, the defect causes decreased levels of the coenzymes adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl) and methylcobalamin (MeCbl), which results in decreased activity of the respective enzymes methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MUT; 609058) and methyltetrahydrofolate:homocysteine methyltransferase, also known as methionine synthase (MTR; 156570). The cblJ type is phenotypically and biochemically similar to the cblF type (MAHCF; 277380) (summary by Coelho et al., 2012).

Zellweger syndrome (ZS) is an autosomal recessive multiple congenital anomaly syndrome resulting from disordered peroxisome biogenesis. Affected children present in the newborn period with profound hypotonia, seizures, and inability to feed. Characteristic craniofacial anomalies, eye abnormalities, neuronal migration defects, hepatomegaly, and chondrodysplasia punctata are present. Children with this condition do not show any significant development and usually die in the first year of life (summary by Steinberg et al., 2006). For a complete phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Zellweger syndrome, see 214100. Individuals with PBDs of complementation group 14 (CG14, equivalent to CGJ) have mutations in the PEX19 gene. For information on the history of PBD complementation groups, see 214100.

CTNNB1 neurodevelopmental disorder (CTNNB1-NDD) is characterized in all individuals by mild-to-profound cognitive impairment and in up to 39% of reported individuals by exudative vitreoretinopathy, an ophthalmologic finding consistent with familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR). Other common findings include truncal hypotonia, peripheral spasticity, dystonia, behavior problems, microcephaly, and refractive errors and strabismus. Less common features include intrauterine growth restriction, feeding difficulties, and scoliosis.

Phosphorylase kinase (PhK) deficiency causing glycogen storage disease type IX (GSD IX) results from deficiency of the enzyme phosphorylase b kinase, which has a major regulatory role in the breakdown of glycogen. The two types of PhK deficiency are liver PhK deficiency (characterized by early childhood onset of hepatomegaly and growth restriction, and often, but not always, fasting ketosis and hypoglycemia) and muscle PhK deficiency, which is considerably rarer (characterized by any of the following: exercise intolerance, myalgia, muscle cramps, myoglobinuria, and progressive muscle weakness). While symptoms and biochemical abnormalities of liver PhK deficiency were thought to improve with age, it is becoming evident that affected individuals need to be monitored for long-term complications such as liver fibrosis and cirrhosis.

STEAP3/TSAP6-related sideroblastic anemia is a very rare severe non-syndromic hypochromic anemia, which is characterized by transfusion-dependent hypochromic, poorly regenerative anemia, iron overload, resembling non-syndromic sideroblastic anemia (see this term) except for increased erythrocyte protoporphyrin levels.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

Mitochondrial complex III deficiency nuclear type 6 (MC3DN6) is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mitochondrial dysfunction. It is characterized by onset in early childhood of episodic acute lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, and insulin-responsive hyperglycemia, usually associated with infection. Laboratory studies show decreased activity of mitochondrial complex III. Psychomotor development is normal (summary by Gaignard et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of mitochondrial complex III deficiency, see MC3DN1 (124000).

Combined immunodeficiency due to MALT1 deficiency is a rare, genetic form of primary immunodeficiency characterized by growth retardation, early recurrent pulmonary infections leading to bronchiectasis, inflammatory gastrointestinal disease, and other symptoms, such as rash, dermatitis, skin infections.

FBXL4-related encephalomyopathic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) depletion syndrome is a multi-system disorder characterized primarily by congenital or early-onset lactic acidosis and growth failure, feeding difficulty, hypotonia, and developmental delay. Other neurologic manifestations can include seizures, movement disorders, ataxia, autonomic dysfunction, and stroke-like episodes. All affected individuals alive at the time they were reported (median age: 3.5 years) demonstrated significant developmental delay. Other findings can involve the heart (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, congenital heart malformations, arrhythmias), liver (mildly elevated transaminases), eyes (cataract, strabismus, nystagmus, optic atrophy), hearing (sensorineural hearing loss), and bone marrow (neutropenia, lymphopenia). Survival varies; the median age of reported deaths was two years (range 2 days – 75 months), although surviving individuals as old as 36 years have been reported. To date FBXL4-related mtDNA depletion syndrome has been reported in 50 individuals.

A rare genetic epidermal disorder with characteristics of congenital erythroderma with severe psoriasiform dermatitis, ichthyosis, severe palmoplantar keratoderma, yellow keratosis on the hands and feet, elevated immunoglobulin E, multiple food allergies, and metabolic wasting. Other variable features may include hypotrichosis, nail dystrophy, recurrent infections, mild global developmental delay, eosinophilia, nystagmus, growth impairment and cardiac defects.

Van Maldergem syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by intellectual disability, typical craniofacial features, auditory malformations resulting in hearing loss, and skeletal and limb malformations. Some patients have renal hypoplasia. Brain MRI typically shows periventricular nodular heterotopia (summary by Cappello et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Van Maldergem syndrome, see 601390.

Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) is characterized by vascular findings (cerebral, thoracic, and abdominal arterial aneurysms and/or dissections), skeletal manifestations (pectus excavatum or pectus carinatum, scoliosis, joint laxity, arachnodactyly, talipes equinovarus, cervical spine malformation and/or instability), craniofacial features (widely spaced eyes, strabismus, bifid uvula / cleft palate, and craniosynostosis that can involve any sutures), and cutaneous findings (velvety and translucent skin, easy bruising, and dystrophic scars). Individuals with LDS are predisposed to widespread and aggressive arterial aneurysms and pregnancy-related complications including uterine rupture and death. Individuals with LDS can show a strong predisposition for allergic/inflammatory disease including asthma, eczema, and reactions to food or environmental allergens. There is also an increased incidence of gastrointestinal inflammation including eosinophilic esophagitis and gastritis or inflammatory bowel disease. Wide variation in the distribution and severity of clinical features can be seen in individuals with LDS, even among affected individuals within a family who have the same pathogenic variant.

Verheij syndrome is characterized by growth retardation, delayed psychomotor development, dysmorphic facial features, and skeletal, mainly vertebral, abnormalities. Additional variable features may include coloboma, renal defects, and cardiac defects (summary by Verheij et al., 2009 and Dauber et al., 2013).

Fanconi renotubular syndrome-3 (FRTS3) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by rickets, impaired growth, glucosuria, generalized aminoaciduria, phosphaturia, metabolic acidosis, and low molecular weight proteinuria (summary by Klootwijk et al., 2014). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Fanconi renotubular syndrome, see FRTS1 (134600).

Congenital dyserythropoietic anemia type I (CDA I) is characterized by moderate-to-severe macrocytic anemia presenting occasionally in utero as severe anemia associated with hydrops fetalis but more commonly in neonates as hepatomegaly, early jaundice, and intrauterine growth restriction. Some individuals present in childhood or adulthood. After the neonatal period, most affected individuals have lifelong moderate anemia, usually accompanied by jaundice and splenomegaly. Secondary hemochromatosis develops with age as a result of increased iron absorption even in those who are not transfused. Distal limb anomalies occur in 4%-14% of affected individuals.

Myopathy with extrapyramidal signs is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by early childhood onset of proximal muscle weakness and learning disabilities. While the muscle weakness is static, most patients develop progressive extrapyramidal signs that may become disabling (summary by Logan et al., 2014). Brain MRI in 1 patient showed congenital malformations, including polymicrogyria and cerebellar dysplasia (Wilton et al., 2020).

Hereditary fibrosing poikiloderma with tendon contractures, myopathy, and pulmonary fibrosis (POIKTMP) is characterized by the skin findings of poikiloderma (typically beginning in the first six months and mainly localized to the face), hypohidrosis with heat intolerance, mild lymphedema of the extremities, chronic erythematous and scaly skin lesions on the extremities, sclerosis of the digits, and mild palmoplantar keratoderma. Scalp hair, eyelashes, and/or eyebrows are typically sparse. Muscle contractures are usually seen in childhood and can be present as early as age two years. The majority of affected individuals develop progressive weakness of the proximal and distal muscles of all four limbs. Some adults develop progressive interstitial pulmonary fibrosis, which can be life threatening within three to four years after respiratory symptoms appear. Other features are exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, liver impairment, hematologic abnormalities, relative short stature, and cataract.

Hyperphosphatasia with impaired intellectual development syndrome-4 (HPMRS4) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by severely delayed psychomotor development, impaired intellectual development, lack of speech acquisition, seizures, and dysmorphic facial features. Laboratory studies show increased serum alkaline phosphatase (summary by Howard et al., 2014). The disorder is caused by a defect in glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) biosynthesis. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of HPMRS, see HPMRS1 (239300). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

Autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (ARCI) encompasses several forms of nonsyndromic ichthyosis. Although most neonates with ARCI are collodion babies, the clinical presentation and severity of ARCI may vary significantly, ranging from harlequin ichthyosis, the most severe and often fatal form, to lamellar ichthyosis (LI) and (nonbullous) congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma (CIE). These phenotypes are now recognized to fall on a continuum; however, the phenotypic descriptions are clinically useful for clarification of prognosis and management. Infants with harlequin ichthyosis are usually born prematurely and are encased in thick, hard, armor-like plates of cornified skin that severely restrict movement. Life-threatening complications in the immediate postnatal period include respiratory distress, feeding problems, and systemic infection. Collodion babies are born with a taut, shiny, translucent or opaque membrane that encases the entire body and lasts for days to weeks. LI and CIE are seemingly distinct phenotypes: classic, severe LI with dark brown, plate-like scale with no erythroderma and CIE with finer whiter scale and underlying generalized redness of the skin. Affected individuals with severe involvement can have ectropion, eclabium, scarring alopecia involving the scalp and eyebrows, and palmar and plantar keratoderma. Besides these major forms of nonsyndromic ichthyosis, a few rare subtypes have been recognized, such as bathing suit ichthyosis, self-improving collodion ichthyosis, or ichthyosis-prematurity syndrome.

Desbuquois dysplasia (DBQD) is an autosomal recessive chondrodysplasia belonging to the multiple dislocation group and characterized by severe prenatal and postnatal growth retardation (stature less than -5 SD), joint laxity, short extremities, and progressive scoliosis. The main radiologic features are short long bones with metaphyseal splay, a 'Swedish key' appearance of the proximal femur (exaggerated trochanter), and advanced carpal and tarsal bone age with a delta phalanx (summary by Huber et al., 2009). Desbuquois dysplasia is clinically and radiographically heterogeneous, and had been classified into 2 types based on the presence (type 1) or absence (type 2) of characteristic hand anomalies, including an extra ossification center distal to the second metacarpal, delta phalanx, bifid distal thumb phalanx, and dislocation of the interphalangeal joints (Faivre et al., 2004). However, patients with and without these additional hand anomalies have been reported to have mutations in the same gene (see, e.g., CANT1); thus, these features are not distinctive criteria to predict the molecular basis of DBQD (Furuichi et al., 2011). In addition, Kim et al. (2010) described another milder variant of DBQD with almost normal outwardly appearing hands, but significant radiographic changes, including short metacarpals, elongated phalanges, and remarkably advanced carpal bone age. However, there is no accessory ossification center distal to the second metacarpal, and patients do not have thumb anomalies. Similar changes occur in the feet. These patients also tend to develop precocious osteoarthritis of the hand and spine with age. This phenotype is sometimes referred to as the 'Kim variant' of DBQD (Furuichi et al., 2011). Genetic Heterogeneity of Desbuquois Dysplasia DBQD2 (615777) is caused by mutation in the XYLT1 gene (608124) on chromosome 16p12. Two unrelated patients with immunodeficiency-23 (IMD23; 615816), due to mutation in the PGM3 gene (172100), were reported to have skeletal features reminiscent of DBQD.

Intellectual developmental disorder with microcephaly and with or without ocular malformations or hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IDDMOH) is characterized by mildly impaired intellectual development and microcephaly. Patients may also have ocular malformations, ocular apraxia, or hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The disorder shows a unique DNA methylation signature (summary by Al-Jawahiri et al., 2022).

Polyglucosan body myopathy-1 (PGBM1) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by onset in childhood of progressive proximal muscle weakness, resulting in difficulties in ambulation. Most patients also develop progressive dilated cardiomyopathy, which may necessitate cardiac transplant in severe cases. A small subset of patients present with severe immunodeficiency and a hyperinflammatory state in very early childhood (summary by Boisson et al., 2012 and Nilsson et al., 2013). Genetic Heterogeneity of Polyglucosan Body Myopathy See also PGBM2 (616199), caused by mutation in the GYG1 gene (603942) on chromosome 3q24.

Immunodeficiency-36 with lymphoproliferation (IMD36) is an autosomal dominant primary immunodeficiency with a highly heterogeneous clinical phenotype, characterized primarily by recurrent respiratory tract infections, lymphoproliferation, and antibody deficiency. Other features include growth retardation, mild neurodevelopmental delay, and autoimmunity. The major complication is development of B-cell lymphoma (Elkaim et al., 2016).

Hennekam lymphangiectasia-lymphedema syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by generalized lymphatic dysplasia affecting various organs, including the intestinal tract, pericardium, and limbs. Additional features of the disorder include facial dysmorphism and cognitive impairment (summary by Alders et al., 2014). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Hennekam lymphangiectasia-lymphedema syndrome, see HKLLS1 (235510).

CAGSSS, which comprises cataracts, growth hormone deficiency, sensory neuropathy, sensorineural hearing loss, and skeletal dysplasia, is an autosomal recessive multisystemic disorder with a highly variable phenotypic spectrum. Not all of these features are always present, and almost all the features may present at different times and/or become more apparent with age. The skeletal features are consistent with spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia (SEMD) (summary by Vona et al., 2018). One family had a distinctive presentation with infantile-onset intractable seizures and cortical abnormalities reminiscent of Leigh syndrome (see 256000). The correlation between genotype and phenotype remains unclear, but since the IARS2 gene is involved in mitochondrial function, heterogeneous manifestations can be expected (Takezawa et al., 2018).

Sideroblastic anemia with B-cell immunodeficiency, periodic fevers, and developmental delay (SIFD) is an autosomal recessive syndromic disorder characterized by onset of severe sideroblastic anemia in the neonatal period or infancy. Affected individuals show delayed psychomotor development with variable neurodegeneration. Recurrent periodic fevers without an infectious etiology occur throughout infancy and childhood; immunologic work-up shows B-cell lymphopenia and hypogammaglobulinemia. Other more variable features include sensorineural hearing loss, retinitis pigmentosa, nephrocalcinosis, and cardiomyopathy. Death in the first decade may occur (summary by Wiseman et al., 2013).

Any autosomal recessive non-syndromic intellectual disability in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the NDST1 gene.

Peroxisomal fatty acyl-CoA reductase-1 disorder (PFCRD) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by onset in infancy of severely delayed psychomotor development, growth retardation with microcephaly, and seizures. Some patients may have congenital cataracts and develop spasticity later in childhood. Biochemical studies tend to show decreased plasmalogen, consistent with a peroxisomal defect. The disorder is reminiscent of rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata (see, e.g., RCDP1, 215100), although the characteristic skeletal abnormalities observed in RCDP are absent (Buchert et al., 2014).

Imerslund-Grasbeck syndrome-2 (IGS2) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by onset of megaloblastic anemia associated with decreased serum vitamin B12 (cobalamin, Cbl) in infancy or early childhood. Low molecular weight (LMW) proteinuria is frequently present, but usually occurs later and is usually mild or subclinical. Patients often present with vague symptoms, including failure to thrive, loss of appetite, fatigue, lethargy, and/or recurrent infections. Treatment with vitamin B12 results in sustained clinical improvement of the anemia. The proteinuria is nonprogressive, and affected individuals do not have deterioration of kidney function; correct diagnosis is important to prevent unnecessary treatment. The disorder results from a combination of vitamin B12 deficiency due to selective malabsorption of the vitamin, and impaired reabsorption of LMW proteins in the proximal renal tubule. These defects are caused by disruption of the AMN/CUBN (602997) complex that forms the 'cubam' receptor responsible for intestinal uptake of B12/GIF (CBLIF; 609342). In the kidney, AMN/CUBN interacts with the endocytic receptor megalin (LRP2; 600073), which is important for the reabsorption of plasma proteins (summary by Grasbeck, 2006, De Filippo et al., 2013, and Storm et al., 2013). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Imerslund-Grasbeck syndrome, see 261100.

Microcephaly, short stature, and impaired glucose metabolism-2 (MSSGM2) is an autosomal recessive syndrome characterized by microcephaly associated with impaired intellectual development, and short stature. Patients develop diabetes in the second or third decade of life, and hypothyroidism and delayed puberty have also been reported (Abdulkarim et al., 2015; Kernohan et al., 2015). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of microcephaly, short stature, and impaired glucose metabolism, see MSSGM1 (616033).

Hyperphosphatasia with impaired intellectual development syndrome-6 (HPMRS6) is an autosomal recessive multisystem disorder characterized by global developmental delay, dysmorphic features, seizures, and congenital cataracts. Severity is variable, and the disorder may show a range of phenotypic and biochemical abnormalities, including increased serum alkaline phosphatase levels (summary by Ilkovski et al., 2015). The disorder is caused by a defect in glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) biosynthesis. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of HPMRS, see HPMRS1 (239300). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

Rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata (RCDP) is a peroxisomal disorder characterized by disproportionately short stature primarily affecting the proximal parts of the extremities, a typical facial appearance including a broad nasal bridge, epicanthus, high-arched palate, dysplastic external ears, and micrognathia, congenital contractures, characteristic ocular involvement, dwarfism, and severe mental retardation with spasticity. Biochemically, plasmalogen synthesis and phytanic acid alpha-oxidation are defective. Most patients die in the first decade of life (summary by Wanders and Waterham, 2005). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata, see 215100.

Immunodeficiency-40 is an autosomal recessive primary form of combined immunodeficiency mainly affecting T-cell number and function, with other more variable defects in B-cell and NK-cell function. Patients have onset of severe invasive bacterial and viral infections in early childhood and may die without bone marrow transplantation (summary by Dobbs et al., 2015).

Arboleda-Tham syndrome (ARTHS) is an autosomal dominant disorder with the core features of impaired intellectual development, speech delay, microcephaly, cardiac anomalies, and gastrointestinal complications (summary by Kennedy et al., 2019).

Tonne-Kalscheuer syndrome (TOKAS) is an X-linked recessive multiple congenital anomaly disorder with 2 main presentations. Most patients exhibit global developmental delay apparent from early infancy, impaired intellectual development, speech delay, behavioral abnormalities, and abnormal gait. Affected individuals also have dysmorphic facial features that evolve with age, anomalies of the hands, feet, and nails, and urogenital abnormalities with hypogenitalism. A subset of more severely affected males develop congenital diaphragmatic hernia in utero, which may result in perinatal or premature death. Carrier females may have very mild skeletal or hormonal abnormalities (summary by Frints et al., 2019). Also see Fryns syndrome (229850), an autosomal recessive disorder with overlapping features.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

Van Esch-O'Driscoll syndrome (VEODS) is characterized by varying degrees of intellectual disability, moderate to severe short stature, microcephaly, hypogonadism, and variable congenital malformations (Van Esch et al., 2019).

Intellectual developmental disorder with dysmorphic facies and ptosis (IDDDFP) is an autosomal dominant neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, delayed language, and dysmorphic facial features, most notably ptosis/blepharophimosis. Additional features may include poor growth, hypotonia, and seizures (summary by Mattioli et al., 2017). See also chromosome 3p deletion syndrome (613792).

MGCA8 is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder resulting in death in infancy. Features include hypotonia, abnormal movements, respiratory insufficiency with apneic episodes, and lack of developmental progress, often with seizures. Brain imaging is variable, but may show progressive cerebral atrophy. Laboratory studies show increased serum lactate and 3-methylglutaconic aciduria, suggesting a mitochondrial defect (summary by Mandel et al., 2016). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of 3-methylglutaconic aciduria, see MGCA type I (250950).

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

ZTTK syndrome (ZTTKS) is a severe multisystem developmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development and intellectual disability. Affected individuals have characteristic dysmorphic facial features, hypotonia, poor feeding, poor overall growth, and eye or visual abnormalities. Most patients also have musculoskeletal abnormalities, and some have congenital defects of the heart and urogenital system. Brain imaging usually shows developmental abnormalities such as gyral changes, cortical and/or cerebellar atrophy, and thin corpus callosum (summary by Kim et al., 2016).

Encephalopathy due to defective mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission-2 (EMPF2) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, severe hypotonia with inability to walk, microcephaly, and abnormal signals in the basal ganglia. More variable features include early-onset seizures, optic atrophy, and peripheral neuropathy (summary by Koch et al., 2016). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of EMPF, see EMPF1 (614388).

Any Meier-Gorlin syndrome in which the cause of the disease is a mutation in the CDC45 gene.

GNB1 encephalopathy (GNB1-E) is characterized by moderate-to-severe developmental delay / intellectual disability, structural brain abnormalities, and often infantile hypotonia and seizures. Other less common findings include dystonia, reduced vision, behavior issues, growth delay, gastrointestinal (GI) problems, genitourinary (GU) abnormalities in males, and cutaneous mastocytosis.

Heart and brain malformation syndrome (HBMS) is a severe autosomal recessive multiple congenital anomaly syndrome characterized by profoundly delayed psychomotor development, dysmorphic facial features, microphthalmia, cardiac malformations, mainly septal defects, and brain malformations, including Dandy-Walker malformation (summary by Shaheen et al., 2016). Homozygous mutation in the SMG9 gene can also cause neurodevelopmental disorder with intention tremor, pyramidal signs, dyspraxia, and ocular anomalies (NEDITPDO; 619995), a less severe neurodevelopmental disorder.

Witteveen-Kolk syndrome (WITKOS) is an autosomal dominant disorder with characteristic distinctive facial features, microcephaly, short stature, and mildly impaired intellectual development with delayed cognitive and motor development and subtle anomalies on MRI-brain imaging (summary by Balasubramanian et al., 2021).

Distal chromosome 19q13.11 deletion syndrome is an autosomal dominant neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by poor overall growth, slender habitus, microcephaly, delayed development, intellectual disability with poor or absent speech, and feeding difficulties. Additional features include dysmorphic facies, signs of ectodermal dysplasia, hand and foot anomalies, and genitourinary anomalies, particularly in males (summary by Chowdhury et al., 2014).

Dyskeratosis congenita and related telomere biology disorders (DC/TBD) are caused by impaired telomere maintenance resulting in short or very short telomeres. The phenotypic spectrum of telomere biology disorders is broad and includes individuals with classic dyskeratosis congenita (DC) as well as those with very short telomeres and an isolated physical finding. Classic DC is characterized by a triad of dysplastic nails, lacy reticular pigmentation of the upper chest and/or neck, and oral leukoplakia, although this may not be present in all individuals. People with DC/TBD are at increased risk for progressive bone marrow failure (BMF), myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myelogenous leukemia, solid tumors (usually squamous cell carcinoma of the head/neck or anogenital cancer), and pulmonary fibrosis. Other findings can include eye abnormalities (epiphora, blepharitis, sparse eyelashes, ectropion, entropion, trichiasis), taurodontism, liver disease, gastrointestinal telangiectasias, and avascular necrosis of the hips or shoulders. Although most persons with DC/TBD have normal psychomotor development and normal neurologic function, significant developmental delay is present in both forms; additional findings include cerebellar hypoplasia (Hoyeraal Hreidarsson syndrome) and bilateral exudative retinopathy and intracranial calcifications (Revesz syndrome and Coats plus syndrome). Onset and progression of manifestations of DC/TBD vary: at the mild end of the spectrum are those who have only minimal physical findings with normal bone marrow function, and at the severe end are those who have the diagnostic triad and early-onset BMF.

Autoinflammation with arthritis and dyskeratosis (AIADK) is characterized by recurrent fever, widespread skin dyskeratosis, arthritis, elevated biologic markers of inflammation, and mild autoimmunity with a high transitional B-cell level (summary by Grandemange et al., 2016).

Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized by physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure, and increased risk for malignancy. Physical abnormalities, present in approximately 75% of affected individuals, include one or more of the following: short stature, abnormal skin pigmentation, skeletal malformations of the upper and/or lower limbs, microcephaly, and ophthalmic and genitourinary tract anomalies. Progressive bone marrow failure with pancytopenia typically presents in the first decade, often initially with thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. The incidence of acute myeloid leukemia is 13% by age 50 years. Solid tumors – particularly of the head and neck, skin, and genitourinary tract – are more common in individuals with FA.

Birk-Landau-Perez syndrome (BILAPES) is an autosomal recessive syndromic developmental disorder characterized by global developmental delay apparent from infancy or early childhood. Some patients have developmental regression with loss of speech and motor skills, whereas other patients never achieve these milestones. More variable features may include hypotonia, poor overall growth, ataxia, dystonia, abnormal eye movements, and renal insufficiency (Perez et al., 2017; Kleyner et al., 2022).

MVA3 is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from errors in chromosome segregation. Most affected individuals develop early-onset Wilms tumor and show either aneuploidy or premature chromatid separation in cells. Some patients may have additional developmental features, such as microcephaly, growth retardation, or developmental delay (summary by Yost et al., 2017). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of MVA, see MVA1 (257300).

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-55 (DEE55) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by onset of refractory seizures in the first weeks or months of life. Affected individuals have an extremely poor outcome, with profoundly impaired intellectual development, absent speech, spastic quadriplegia, and dyskinetic movements. Most have cortical visual impairment and require a feeding tube. Brain imaging shows nonspecific abnormalities, including cerebral atrophy, thin corpus callosum, and abnormal signals in the white matter. Death in childhood may occur. Biochemically, the disorder is associated with impaired synthesis of GPI-anchored proteins (summary by Vetro et al., 2020). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

ISCA1-related multiple mitochondrial dysfunctions syndrome (ISCA1-MMDS) is a severe neurodegenerative condition typically characterized by either no attainment of developmental milestones or very early loss of achieved milestones, seizures in early infancy, development of spasticity with exaggerated deep tendon reflexes, nystagmus, and risk for sensorineural hearing loss. Affected individuals may also demonstrate elevated blood lactate levels with an elevated lipid-lactate peak on brain MR spectroscopy. Further brain MRI findings may include extensive cerebral and cerebellar deep white matter hyperintensities, marked dilatation of the cerebral ventricles, and pachygyria. Prognosis is poor and most individuals succumb to an intercurrent illness in early childhood.

CAKUTHED is an autosomal dominant highly pleiotropic developmental disorder characterized mainly by variable congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract, sometimes resulting in renal dysfunction or failure, dysmorphic facial features, and abnormalities of the outer ear, often with hearing loss. Most patients have global developmental delay (summary by Heidet et al., 2017 and Slavotinek et al., 2017).

Mitochondrial myopathy and ataxia (MMYAT) is an autosomal recessive mtDNA depletion disorder characterized by cerebellar ataxia, congenital muscle involvement with histologic findings ranging from myopathic to dystrophic, and pigmentary retinopathy (summary by Donkervoort et al., 2019).

IMDDHH is a multisystem disorder characterized by immunodeficiency, mildly delayed psychomotor development, poor overall growth from infancy, and hypohomocysteinemia. Additional features, such as congenital heart defects and liver involvement, are more variable (summary by Huppke et al., 2017).

Kleefstra syndrome-2 (KLEFS2) is an autosomal dominant neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, variably impaired intellectual development, and mild dysmorphic features (summary by Koemans et al., 2017). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Kleefstra syndrome, see KLEFS1 (610253).

WFS1 Wolfram syndrome spectrum disorder (WFS1-WSSD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by onset of diabetes mellitus (DM) and optic atrophy (OA) before age 16 years, and typically associated with other endocrine abnormalities, sensorineural hearing loss, and progressive neurologic abnormalities (cerebellar ataxia, peripheral neuropathy, dementia, psychiatric illness, and urinary tract atony). Although DM is mostly insulin-dependent, overall the course is milder (with lower prevalence of microvascular disease) than that seen in isolated DM. OA typically results in significantly reduced visual acuity in the first decade. Sensorineural hearing impairment ranges from congenital deafness to milder, sometimes progressive, hearing impairment.

Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RSTS) is characterized by distinctive facial features, broad and often angulated thumbs and halluces, short stature, and moderate-to-severe intellectual disability. The characteristic craniofacial features are downslanted palpebral fissures, low-hanging columella, high palate, grimacing smile, and talon cusps. Prenatal growth is often normal, then height, weight, and head circumference percentiles rapidly drop in the first few months of life. Short stature is typical in adulthood. Obesity may develop in childhood or adolescence. Average IQ ranges between 35 and 50; however, developmental outcome varies considerably. Some individuals with EP300-RSTS have normal intellect. Additional features include ocular abnormalities, hearing loss, respiratory difficulties, congenital heart defects, renal abnormalities, cryptorchidism, feeding problems, recurrent infections, and severe constipation.

Van Maldergem syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by intellectual disability, typical craniofacial features, auditory malformations resulting in hearing loss, and skeletal and limb malformations. Some patients have renal hypoplasia. Brain MRI typically shows periventricular nodular heterotopia (summary by Cappello et al., 2013). Genetic Heterogeneity of Van Maldergem Syndrome See also VMLDS2 (615546), caused by mutation in the FAT4 gene (612411) on chromosome 4q28.

Myopathy, lactic acidosis, and sideroblastic anemia (MLASA) is a rare autosomal recessive oxidative phosphorylation disorder specific to skeletal muscle and bone marrow (Bykhovskaya et al., 2004). Genetic Heterogeneity of Myopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Sideroblastic Anemia MLASA2 (613561) is caused by mutation in the YARS2 gene (610957) on chromosome 12p11. MLASA3 (500011) is caused by heteroplasmic mutation in the mitochondrially-encoded MTATP6 gene (516060).

Schimmelpenning-Feuerstein-Mims syndrome, also known as linear sebaceous nevus syndrome, is characterized by sebaceous nevi, often on the face, associated with variable ipsilateral abnormalities of the central nervous system, ocular anomalies, and skeletal defects (summary by Happle, 1991 and Ernst et al., 2007). The linear sebaceous nevi follow the lines of Blaschko (Hornstein and Knickenberg, 1974; Bouwes Bavinck and van de Kamp, 1985). All cases are sporadic. The syndrome is believed to be caused by an autosomal dominant lethal mutation that survives by somatic mosaicism (Gorlin et al., 2001).

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-14 (HLD14) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by hypotonia, almost complete lack of motor or cognitive skills, and absent language development. Additional features include spasticity and intractable seizures; many patients also have perceptive hearing loss and/or blindness. Most patients require tube feeding or ventilatory support, and most die in the first years of life. Brain imaging shows hypomyelination, small caudate and putamen, and cerebral and cerebellar atrophy (summary by Hamilton et al., 2017). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hypomyelinating leukodystrophy, see 312080.

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-17 (HLD17) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by poor, if any, development apparent from infancy. Affected individuals never learn to walk or speak, and have early-onset multifocal seizures, spasticity, poor overall growth, and microcephaly (up to -10 SD). Brain imaging shows multiple abnormalities, including cerebral and cerebellar atrophy, thin corpus callosum, abnormal signals in the basal ganglia, and features suggesting hypo- or demyelination. Some patients may die in childhood (summary by Shukla et al., 2018). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hypomyelinating leukodystrophy, see 312080.

Combined oxidative phosphorylation deficiency-13 (COXPD13) is an autosomal recessive multisystem disorder resulting from mitochondrial dysfunction. Affected individuals develop severe neurologic impairment in the first months of life, including hypotonia, abnormal dystonic movements, hearing loss, poor feeding, global developmental delay, and abnormal eye movements. Brain imaging shows signal abnormalities in putamen, basal ganglia, caudate nuclei, or corpus callosum, as well as delayed myelination. Analysis of patient tissues shows multiple defects in enzymatic activities of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, although some tissues may show normal values since tissue expression of the mitochondrial defect and metabolic needs of specific tissues are variable (summary by Vedrenne et al., 2012). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of combined oxidative phosphorylation deficiency, see COXPD1 (609060).

Characteristic features of the distal 3p- syndrome include low birth weight, microcephaly, trigonocephaly, hypotonia, psychomotor and growth retardation, ptosis, telecanthus, downslanting palpebral fissures, and micrognathia. Postaxial polydactyly, renal anomalies, cleft palate, congenital heart defects (especially atrioventricular septal defects), preauricular pits, sacral dimple, and gastrointestinal anomalies are variable features. Although intellectual deficits are almost invariably associated with cytogenetically visible 3p deletions, rare patients with a 3p26-p25 deletion and normal intelligence or only mild abnormalities have been described (summary by Shuib et al., 2009).

Hyper-IgE syndrome-2 with recurrent infections (HIES2) is an autosomal recessive immunologic disorder characterized by recurrent staphylococcal infections of the skin and respiratory tract, eczema, elevated serum immunoglobulin E, and hypereosinophilia. It is distinguished from autosomal dominant HIES1 (147060) by the lack of connective tissue and skeletal involvement (Renner et al., 2004). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of hyper-IgE syndrome, see 147060. See also TYK2 deficiency (611521), a clinically distinct disease entity that includes characteristic features of both autosomal recessive HIES2 and mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease (MSMD; 209950) (Minegishi et al., 2006).

Proteasome-associated autoinflammatory syndrome-1 (PRAAS1) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by early childhood onset of annular erythematous plaques on the face and extremities with subsequent development of partial lipodystrophy and laboratory evidence of immune dysregulation. More variable features include recurrent fever, severe joint contractures, muscle weakness and atrophy, hepatosplenomegaly, basal ganglia calcifications, and microcytic anemia (summary by Agarwal et al., 2010; Kitamura et al., 2011; Arima et al., 2011). This disorder encompasses Nakajo-Nishimura syndrome (NKJO); joint contractures, muscular atrophy, microcytic anemia, and panniculitis-induced lipodystrophy (JMP syndrome); and chronic atypical neutrophilic dermatosis with lipodystrophy and elevated temperature syndrome (CANDLE). Among Japanese patients, this disorder is best described as Nakajo-Nishimura syndrome, since both Nakajo (1939) and Nishimura et al. (1950) contributed to the original phenotypic descriptions. Genetic Heterogeneity of Proteasome-Associated Autoinflammatory Syndrome See also PRAAS2 (618048), caused by mutation in the POMP gene (613386) on chromosome 13q12; PRAAS3 (617591), caused by mutation in the PSMB4 gene (602177) on chromosome 1q21; PRAAS4 (619183), caused by mutation in the PSMG2 gene (609702) on chromosome 18p11; PRAAS5 (619175), caused by mutation in the PSMB10 gene (176847) on chromosome 16q22; and PRAAS6 (620796), caused by mutation in the PSMB9 gene (177045) on chromosome 6p21.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol biosynthesis defect-17 (GPIBD17) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by variable neurologic deficits that become apparent in infancy or early childhood. Patients may present with early-onset febrile or afebrile seizures that tend to be mild or controllable. Other features may include learning disabilities, autism, behavioral abnormalities, hypotonia, and motor deficits. The phenotype is relatively mild compared to that of other GPIBDs (summary by Nguyen et al., 2018). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with spasticity and poor growth (NEDSG) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe early-onset encephalopathy with progressive microcephaly (Nahorski et al., 2018).

Bone marrow failure syndrome-5 (BMFS5) is a hematologic disorder characterized by infantile onset of severe red cell anemia requiring transfusion. Additional features include hypogammaglobulinemia, poor growth with microcephaly, developmental delay, and seizures (summary by Toki et al., 2018) For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of BMFS, see BMFS1 (614675).

Mitochondrial complex I deficiency nuclear type 23 (MC1DN23) is an autosomal recessive nuclear-encoded mitochondrial disease with clinical presentations ranging from movement disorder phenotypes (dystonia and/or spasticity) to isolated optic atrophy. MRI findings may include basal ganglia abnormalities or optic atrophy (summary by Magrinelli et al., 2022).

The MCIDDS syndrome is characterized by microcephaly and growth retardation, congenital cataracts, impaired intellectual development with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, and dystonia, with striatal thinning seen on MRI (Al-Owain et al., 2013).

A very rare complex subtype of hereditary spastic paraplegia that presents in infancy with delayed motor development (crawling, walking) and has characteristics of lower limb spasticity, increased deep tendon reflexes, extensor plantar responses, impaired vibratory sensation at ankles, amyotrophy and borderline intellectual disability. Additional signs may include gait disturbances, Achilles tendon contractures, and scoliosis and cerebellar abnormalities.

ASXL3-related disorder is characterized by developmental delay or intellectual disability, typically in the moderate to severe range, with speech and language delay and/or absent speech. Affected individuals may also display autistic features. There may be issues with feeding. While dysmorphic facial features have been described, they are typically nonspecific. Affected individuals may also have hypotonia that can transition to spasticity resulting in unusual posture with flexion contractions of the elbows, wrists, and fingers. Other findings may include poor postnatal growth, strabismus, seizures, sleep disturbance, and dental anomalies.

The spectrum of FARS2 deficiency ranges from the infantile-onset phenotype, characterized by epileptic encephalopathy with lactic acidosis and poor prognosis (70% of affected individuals), to the later-onset phenotype, characterized by spastic paraplegia, less severe neurologic manifestations, and longer survival (30% of affected individuals). To date FARS2 deficiency has been reported in 37 individuals from 25 families. Infantile-onset phenotype. Seizures are difficult to control and may progress quickly at an early age to intractable seizures with frequent status epilepticus; some children have hypsarrhythmia on EEG. All have developmental delay; most are nonverbal and unable to walk. Feeding difficulties are common. More than half of affected children die in early childhood. Later-onset phenotype. All affected individuals have spastic paraplegia manifested by weakness, spasticity, and exaggerated reflexes of the lower extremities associated with walking difficulties; some have developmental delay/intellectual disability; some have brief seizures that resolve over time.

Pontocerebellar hypoplasia type 10 is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorder characterized by severely delayed psychomotor development, progressive microcephaly, spasticity, seizures, and brain abnormalities, including brain atrophy and delayed myelination. Some patients have dysmorphic features and an axonal sensorimotor neuropathy (summary by Karaca et al., 2014 and Schaffer et al., 2014). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of PCH, see PCH1 (607596).

The two forms of deoxyguanosine kinase (DGUOK) deficiency are a neonatal multisystem disorder and an isolated hepatic disorder that presents later in infancy or childhood. The majority of affected individuals have the multisystem illness with hepatic disease (jaundice, cholestasis, hepatomegaly, and elevated transaminases) and neurologic manifestations (hypotonia, nystagmus, and psychomotor retardation) evident within weeks of birth. Those with isolated liver disease may also have renal involvement and some later develop mild hypotonia. Progressive hepatic disease is the most common cause of death in both forms.

Galloway-Mowat syndrome is a phenotypically heterogeneous disorder characterized by neurodevelopmental defects combined with renal-glomerular disease manifest as nephrotic syndrome and proteinuria. Most patients with GAMOS6 also have growth deficiency with variable microcephaly, and the renal disease may be age-dependent. Additional variable endocrine abnormalities have also been reported (summary by Braun et al., 2018). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GAMOS, see GAMOS1 (251300).

Holoprosencephaly-12 with or without pancreatic agenesis (HPE12) is a developmental disorder characterized by abnormal separation of the embryonic forebrain (HPE) resulting in dysmorphic facial features and often, but not always, impaired neurologic development. Most patients with this form of HPE also have congenital absence of the pancreas, resulting in early-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus and requiring pancreatic enzyme replacement. Other features may include hearing loss and absence of the gallbladder (summary by De Franco et al., 2019 and Kruszka et al., 2019). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of holoprosencephaly, see HPE1 (236100).

Hypopigmentation, organomegaly, and delayed myelination and development (HOD) is characterized by hypopigmented skin and hair with normally pigmented irides; organomegaly including enlargement of liver, kidney, and spleen; and delayed myelination on brain MRI accompanied by developmental delay in both gross and fine motor skills. Biopsy findings from skin and other organs are consistent with a lysosomal storage disorder (Nicoli et al., 2019).

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-80 (DEE80) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by the onset of refractory seizures in the first year of life. Patients have severe global developmental delay and may have additional variable features, including dysmorphic or coarse facial features, distal skeletal abnormalities, and impaired hearing or vision. At the cellular level, the disorder is caused by a defect in the synthesis of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI), and thus affects the expression of GPI-anchored proteins at the cell surface (summary by Murakami et al., 2019). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350. For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of GPI biosynthesis defects, see GPIBD1 (610293).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with dysmorphic facies and distal skeletal anomalies (NEDDFSA) is a global neurodevelopmental disorder with highly variable features. Patients often show poor feeding, poor overall growth, and hypotonia from early infancy, followed by mildly delayed motor development, poor language acquisition, and behavioral abnormalities. Intellectual development varies from severe with absent speech to mild with the ability to attend special schools. Common features include dysmorphic facial features with notable eye anomalies, joint hypermobility, and mild skeletal anomalies of the hands and feet (summary by Carapito et al., 2019).

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-85 with or without midline brain defects (DEE85) is an X-linked neurologic disorder characterized by onset of severe refractory seizures in the first year of life, global developmental delay with impaired intellectual development and poor or absent speech, and dysmorphic facial features. The seizures tend to show a cyclic pattern with clustering. Many patients have midline brain defects on brain imaging, including thin corpus callosum and/or variable forms of holoprosencephaly (HPE). The severity and clinical manifestations are variable. Almost all reported patients are females with de novo mutations predicted to result in a loss of function (LOF). However, some patients may show skewed X inactivation, and the pathogenic mechanism may be due to a dominant-negative effect. The SMC1A protein is part of the multiprotein cohesin complex involved in chromatid cohesion during DNA replication and transcriptional regulation; DEE85 can thus be classified as a 'cohesinopathy' (summary by Symonds et al., 2017 and Kruszka et al., 2019). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of DEE, see 308350.

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy-88 (DEE88) is an autosomal recessive severe neurologic disorder characterized by global developmental delay, early-onset epilepsy, and progressive microcephaly. Brain MRI findings may include corpus callosum abnormalities, prominent ventricles, and mild hypoplasia of the inferior vermis and pons (Broeks et al., 2019). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, see 308350.

Mandibuloacral dysplasia with type A lipodystrophy (MADA) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by growth retardation, craniofacial anomalies with mandibular hypoplasia, skeletal abnormalities with progressive osteolysis of the distal phalanges and clavicles, and pigmentary skin changes. The lipodystrophy is characterized by a marked acral loss of fatty tissue with normal or increased fatty tissue in the neck and trunk. Some patients may show progeroid features. Metabolic complications can arise due to insulin resistance and diabetes (Young et al., 1971; Simha and Garg, 2002; summary by Garavelli et al., 2009). See also MAD type B (MADB; 608612), which is caused by mutation in the ZMPSTE24 gene (606480).

The IFAP/BRESHECK syndrome is an X-linked multiple congenital anomaly disorder with variable severity. The classic triad, which defines IFAP, is ichthyosis follicularis, atrichia, and photophobia. Some patients have additional features, including mental retardation, brain anomalies, Hirschsprung disease, corneal opacifications, kidney dysplasia, cryptorchidism, cleft palate, and skeletal malformations, particularly of the vertebrae, which constitutes BRESHECK syndrome (summary by Naiki et al., 2012). Genetic Heterogeneity of IFAP Syndrome IFAP syndrome-2 (IFAP2; 619016) is caused by heterozygous mutation in the SREBF1 gene (184756) on chromosome 17p11.

Individuals with hereditary distal renal tubular acidosis (dRTA) typically present in infancy with failure to thrive, although later presentations can occur, especially in individuals with autosomal dominant SLC4A1-dRTA. Initial clinical manifestations can also include emesis, polyuria, polydipsia, constipation, diarrhea, decreased appetite, and episodes of dehydration. Electrolyte manifestations include hyperchloremic non-anion gap metabolic acidosis and hypokalemia. Renal complications of dRTA include nephrocalcinosis, nephrolithiasis, medullary cysts, and impaired renal function. Additional manifestations include bone demineralization (rickets, osteomalacia), growth deficiency, sensorineural hearing loss (in ATP6V0A4-, ATP6V1B1-, and FOXI1-dRTA), and hereditary hemolytic anemia (in some individuals with SLC4A1-dRTA).

Any COACH syndrome in which the cause of the disease is a variation in the TMEM67 gene.

Rajab interstitial lung disease with brain calcifications-1 (RILDBC1) is an autosomal recessive multisystem disorder with a highly variable phenotype. Most patients present in infancy or early childhood with poor growth and interstitial lung disease, which may lead to death. Some may also have liver, skeletal, and renal abnormalities, and most have intracranial calcifications on brain imaging. Some may have early impaired motor development, but most have normal cognitive development (summary by Xu et al., 2018). Genetic Heterogeneity of Rajab Interstitial Lung Disease with Brain Calcifications Also see Rajab interstitial disease with brain calcifications-2 (RILDBC2; 619013), caused by mutation in the FARSA gene (602918).

Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita-5 (AMC5) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe joint contractures apparent at birth. Affected individuals usually have hypertonia and abnormal movements suggestive of dystonia, as well as feeding and/or breathing difficulties. More variable features may include poor overall growth, strabismus, dysmorphic facies, and global developmental delay with impaired speech (summary by Kariminejad et al., 2017).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with progressive spasticity and brain white matter abnormalities (NEDSWMA) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by impaired psychomotor development apparent in infancy. Affected individuals show poor overall growth, progressive microcephaly, and axial hypotonia, with later onset of spasticity. The disorder is progressive. Some patients show normal early development, but later have regression of motor, cognitive, and language skills. More variable features include seizures, joint contractures, ocular disturbances, episodic respiratory failure, and nonspecific dysmorphic facial features. The intellectual impairment is variable, ranging from poor visual contact with inability to walk or speak to milder intellectual disability with the ability to say some words. Brain imaging shows variable white matter abnormalities, including thin corpus callosum and poor myelination (summary by Husain et al., 2020).

Combined oxidative phosphorylation deficiency-51 (COXPD51) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a Leigh syndrome phenotype (see 256000). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of combined oxidative phosphorylation deficiency, see COXPD1 (609060).

Vitamin D-dependent rickets-3 (VDDR3) is characterized by early-onset rickets, reduced serum levels of the vitamin D metabolites 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and deficient responsiveness to the parent molecule as well as activated forms of vitamin D (Roizen et al., 2018). For discussion of genetic heterogeneity of vitamin D-dependent rickets, see 264700.

Neurodevelopmental disorder with cardiomyopathy, spasticity, and brain abnormalities (NEDCASB) is an autosomal recessive multisystemic disorder characterized by global neurodevelopmental delay, severely impaired intellectual development, poor overall growth, and spasticity of the lower limbs resulting in gait difficulties. Most affected individuals also develop progressive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in childhood or have cardiac developmental anomalies. Additional more variable features include dysmorphic facies and axonal sensory peripheral neuropathy. Brain imaging tends to show thin corpus callosum and polymicrogyria (summary by Garcia-Cazorla et al., 2020).

Mitochondrial complex II deficiency nuclear type 2 (MC2DN2) is an autosomal recessive multisystemic metabolic disorder with variable severity and features. Most patients present with neurologic deterioration in infancy or early childhood after normal early development. Features include loss of motor skills, spastic paresis, dystonia, and loss of speech associated with increased serum and CSF lactate. Some patients may have mental decline or visual loss. Skeletal muscle samples show isolated complex II deficiency, and proton MRS shows increased succinate levels in the CSF and brain white matter. Brain imaging usually shows progressive leukoencephalopathy. Although the pattern of brain involvement may not be characteristic of Leigh syndrome (see 256000), postmortem examination in 1 patient showed multifocal spongiform encephalomyelopathy consistent with a diagnosis of Leigh syndrome. The most severely affected patients die of multiorgan failure and lactic acidosis, whereas others who survive may stabilize and regain some skills. Treatment with riboflavin may offer clinical improvement (summary by Brockmann et al., 2002 and Bugiani et al., 2006). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of MC2DN, see MC2DN1 (252011).

Infantile-onset progressive leukoencephalopathy with or without deafness (LEPID) is an autosomal recessive complex neurodegenerative disorder with onset of symptoms in infancy or early childhood. Most patients present with sensorineural deafness or hypoacousia and global developmental delay. Affected individuals show episodic regression with progressive motor deterioration resulting in spastic tetraplegia and loss of ambulation, as well as impaired intellectual development with poor or absent speech. Additional more variable features may include poor overall growth with microcephaly, seizures, visual loss, microcytic anemia, and hepatic enlargement or abnormal liver enzymes. Brain imaging shows deep white matter abnormalities consistent with a progressive leukoencephalopathy. The brain and spinal cord are usually both involved; calcifications of these regions are often observed. Laboratory studies show increased serum lactate and deficiencies of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, consistent with global mitochondrial dysfunction. Early death often occurs (summary by Itoh et al., 2019).

Immunodeficiency-76 (IMD76) is an autosomal recessive primary immunologic disorder characterized by onset of recurrent bacterial, viral, and fungal infections in early childhood. Laboratory studies show T-cell lymphopenia and may show variable B-cell or immunoglobulin abnormalities. More variable features found in some patients include lymphoma and neurologic features. Although bone marrow transplantation may be curative, many patients die in childhood (summary by Lyszkiewicz et al., 2020).

Autosomal dominant intellectual developmental disorder-64 (MRD64) is characterized by mildly to severely impaired intellectual development (ID) with speech delays. Most patients also have autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Additional features are highly variable but may include motor delay, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and nonspecific dysmorphic features (summary by Mirzaa et al., 2020).

SOFM is characterized by marked short stature, oligodontia, mild facial dysmorphism, and motor delay. Endosteal hyperostosis has also been observed, and patients may exhibit some features of progeria (Terhal et al., 2020; Beauregard-Lacroix et al., 2020).

SHILCA is characterized by early-onset retinal degeneration in association with sensorineural hearing loss, short stature, vertebral anomalies, and epiphyseal dysplasia, as well as motor and intellectual delay. Delayed myelination, leukoencephalopathy, and hypoplasia of the corpus callosum and cerebellum have been observed on brain MRI (Bedoni et al., 2020).

Odontochondrodysplasia-2 with hearing loss and diabetes (ODCD2) is characterized by growth retardation with proportionate short stature, dentinogenesis imperfecta, sensorineural hearing loss, insulin-dependent diabetes, and mild intellectual disability (Cauwels et al., 2005; Lekszas et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of ODCD, see ODCD1 (184260).

Pontocerebellar hypoplasia type 1F (PCH1F) is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by hypotonia, global developmental delay, poor overall growth, and dysmorphic facial features. Brain imaging shows pontocerebellar hypoplasia, thin corpus callosum, cerebral atrophy, and delayed myelination (summary by Somashekar et al., 2021). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of PCH, see PCH1A (607596).

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-21 (HLD21) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by global developmental delay apparent from infancy with loss of motor, speech, and cognitive milestones in the first decades of life. Affected individuals show cerebellar and pyramidal signs, including nystagmus, ataxia, dystonia, and spasticity, resulting in the loss of ambulation. Other more variable features include feeding difficulties, poor overall growth with microcephaly, optic atrophy, and seizures. Brain imaging shows diffuse hypomyelination of the white matter and atrophy of the cerebellum and corpus callosum. The disorder is progressive and may lead to premature death (summary by Dorboz et al., 2018). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of HLD, see 312080.

Marbach-Rustad progeroid syndrome (MARUPS) is characterized by progeroid appearance with little subcutaneous fat and triangular facies, growth retardation with short stature, hypoplastic mandible crowded with unerupted supernumerary teeth, and cerebellar intention tremor. Psychomotor development is normal. Although features are reminiscent of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS; 176670), MARUPS is less severe, with a relatively good prognosis. Two patients have been reported (Marbach et al., 2019).

Infantile-onset multisystem neurologic, endocrine, and pancreatic disease-2 (IMNEPD2) is an autosomal recessive multisystemic disorder characterized by cholestatic hepatitis, poor feeding associated with poor overall growth, and hypoglycemia apparent from infancy. Most, but not all, patients have variable global developmental delay. Additional common features include sensorineural deafness, retinal abnormalities with visual defects, and hypotonia. Some patients have endocrine abnormalities, including hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, pancreatic dysfunction, hypothyroidism, and primary amenorrhea. Additional features may include hypertriglyceridemia, anemia, proteinuria, increased lactate, and recurrent infections. Brain imaging often shows dysmyelination, thin corpus callosum, cerebral atrophy, and white matter abnormalities. Although the clinical manifestations and severity of the disorder are highly variable, death in early childhood may occur (summary by Williams et al., 2019 and Zeiad et al., 2021). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of IMNEPD, see IMNEPD1 (616263).

Autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia-31 (SCAR31) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by global developmental delay with hypotonia and variably impaired intellectual and language development. Affected individuals have an ataxic gait, tremor, and dysarthria; more severely affected patients also have spasticity with inability to walk. Most have optic atrophy. Brain imaging shows cerebellar hypoplasia, enlarged ventricles, and atrophy of the posterior corpus callosum. Additional features may include retinitis pigmentosa, sensorineural deafness, dysmorphic facial features, and possibly endocrine dysfunction (summary by Collier et al., 2021).

Primary bile acid malabsorption (PBAM) is an intestinal disorder associated with chronic watery diarrhea, excess fecal bile acids, and steatorrhea. Bile acid malabsorption has been classified into 3 main types depending on the etiology. Types 1 and 3 are secondary disorders: type 1 is due to ileal dysfunction resulting from Crohn disease or ileal resection, and type 3 is secondary to other conditions, including cholecystectomy, post-vagotomy, celiac disease, and pancreatic insufficiency. Type 2 bile acid malabsorption is a primary congenital disorder, including the rare type due to mutations in the SLC10A2 gene (review by Pattni and Walters, 2009). Genetic Heterogeneity of Primary Bile Acid Malabsorption Also see PBAM2 (619481), caused by mutation in the SLC51B gene (612085).

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and neurodevelopmental syndrome (FSGSNEDS) is characterized by global developmental delay and renal dysfunction manifest as proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome apparent from infancy or early childhood. Some patients present with renal disease, whereas others present with developmental delay and develop renal disease later in childhood. Renal biopsy shows focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), but the course of the disease is variable: some patients have transient proteinuria and others require renal transplant. Neurodevelopmental features are also variable, with some patients having only mildly impaired intellectual development, and others having a severe developmental disorder associated with early-onset refractory seizures or epileptic encephalopathy. Additional features, including feeding difficulties, poor overall growth, and nonspecific dysmorphic facial features, are commonly observed (summary by Assoum et al., 2018 and Weng et al., 2021).

Immunodeficiency-85 and autoimmunity (IMD85) is an autosomal dominant immunologic disorder characterized by onset of atopic eczema and recurrent respiratory infections in the first decade of life. Affected individuals also develop autoimmune enteropathy with vomiting, diarrhea, and poor overall growth. More variable features may include autoimmune oligoarthritis, interstitial pneumonitis, and EBV viremia. Laboratory studies show hypogammaglobulinemia and abnormal T-cell function, consistent with a combined immunodeficiency (Keskitalo et al., 2019).

Neurodevelopmental-craniofacial syndrome with variable renal and cardiac abnormalities (NECRC) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by dysmorphic craniofacial features associated with mild developmental delay, mildly impaired intellectual development or learning difficulties, speech delay, and behavioral abnormalities. About half of patients have congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) and/or congenital cardiac defects, including septal defects (Connaughton et al., 2020).

SIMHA syndrome is characterized by short stature, impaired intellectual development, microcephaly, hypotonia, and ocular anomalies. Inter- and intrafamilial phenotypic variability has been observed (Kambouris et al., 2014; Zahra et al., 2020).

Cerebellar ataxia, brain abnormalities, and cardiac conduction defects (CABAC) is an autosomal recessive primarily neurologic disorder with variable manifestations. Common features included infantile-onset hypotonia, poor motor development, poor feeding and overall growth, and ataxic gait due to cerebellar ataxia. Other features include dysarthria, nystagmus, variable ocular anomalies, spasticity, hyperreflexia, and nonspecific dysmorphic features. Most, but not all, patients have global developmental delay with impaired intellectual development and speech delay. Brain imaging shows cerebellar hypoplasia, often with brainstem hypoplasia, enlarged ventricles, delayed myelination, and thin corpus callosum. A significant number of patients develop cardiac conduction defects in childhood or adolescence, often requiring pacemaker placement (summary by Slavotinek et al., 2020).

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex (EBS) is characterized by fragility of the skin (and mucosal epithelia in some instances) that results in non-scarring blisters and erosions caused by minor mechanical trauma. EBS is distinguished from other types of epidermolysis bullosa (EB) or non-EB skin fragility syndromes by the location of the blistering in relation to the dermal-epidermal junction. In EBS, blistering occurs within basal keratinocytes. The severity of blistering ranges from limited to hands and feet to widespread involvement. Additional features can include hyperkeratosis of the palms and soles (keratoderma), nail dystrophy, milia, and hyper- and/or hypopigmentation. Rare EBS subtypes have been associated with additional clinical features including pyloric atresia, muscular dystrophy, cardiomyopathy, and/or nephropathy.

Immunodeficiency-87 and autoimmunity (IMD87) is an autosomal recessive immunologic disorder with wide phenotypic variation and severity. Affected individuals usually present in infancy or early childhood with increased susceptibility to infections, often Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), as well as with lymphadenopathy or autoimmune manifestations, predominantly hemolytic anemia. Laboratory studies may show low or normal lymphocyte numbers, often with skewed T-cell subset ratios. The disorder results primarily from defects in T-cell function, which causes both immunodeficiency and overall immune dysregulation (summary by Serwas et al., 2019 and Fournier et al., 2021).

PEBAT is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by severely delayed psychomotor development apparent soon after birth or in infancy, profound intellectual disability, poor or absent speech, and seizures. Most patients are never able to walk due to hypotonia or spasticity. Brain imaging shows cerebral and cerebellar atrophy, thin corpus callosum, and secondary hypomyelination. The disorder shows progressive features, including microcephaly, consistent with a neurodegenerative process (summary by Miyake et al., 2016; Flex et al., 2016).

Seizures, cortical blindness, and microcephaly syndrome (SCBMS) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by microcephaly, early-onset seizures, severely delayed psychomotor development, and cortical blindness. Affected individuals also tend to show poor overall growth with short stature (summary by Ercan-Sencicek et al., 2015).

A rare autosomal recessive primary immunodeficiency characterized by infancy onset of severe inflammatory bowel disease with life-threatening diarrhea and failure to thrive, oral aphthous ulcers, and recurrent severe upper and lower respiratory tract infections with finger clubbing. Laboratory examination reveals increased IgE and decreased IgG levels, as well as reduced numbers of circulating CD19+ B-cells including IgM+ naive and class-switched IgG memory B-cells, with a concomitant increase in transitional B-cells, while T-cell numbers and function are normal.

Autosomal recessive SPG9B is a neurologic disorder characterized by early-onset complex spastic paraplegia. Affected individuals had delayed psychomotor development, intellectual disability, and severe motor impairment. More variable features include dysmorphic facial features, tremor, and urinary incontinence (summary by Coutelier et al., 2015). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of autosomal recessive SPG, see SPG5A (270800).

Carey-Fineman-Ziter syndrome-1 (CFZS1) is a multisystem congenital disorder characterized by hypotonia, Moebius sequence (bilateral congenital facial palsy with impairment of ocular abduction), Pierre Robin complex (micrognathia, glossoptosis, and high-arched or cleft palate), delayed motor milestones, and failure to thrive. More variable features include dysmorphic facial features, brain abnormalities, and intellectual disability. It has been postulated that many clinical features in CFZS1 may be secondary effects of muscle weakness during development or brainstem anomalies (summary by Pasetti et al., 2016). Di Gioia et al. (2017) determined that CFZS1 represents a slowly progressive congenital myopathy resulting from a defect in myoblast fusion. Genetic Heterogeneity of Carey-Fineman-Ziter Syndrome Carey-Fineman-Ziter syndrome-2 (CFZS2) is caused by mutation in the MYMX gene (619912) on chromosome 6p21.

X-linked immunodeficiency-98 with autoinflammation (IMD98) is characterized by onset of recurrent infections associated with lymphoproliferation and autoinflammation in the first decade of life. Mostly males are affected; carrier females may have mild symptoms. Laboratory studies show evidence of immune dysregulation, including hypogammaglobulinemia with reduced memory B cells, skewed T-cell subsets, increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, activated T cells and monocytes, and autoimmune cytopenias, including neutropenia (Aluri et al., 2021; Fejtkova et al., 2022).

CLPB (caseinolytic peptidase B) deficiency is characterized by neurologic involvement and neutropenia, which can range from severe to mild. In severe CLPB deficiency, death usually occurs at a few months of age due to significant neonatal neurologic involvement (hyperekplexia or absence of voluntary movements, hypotonia or hypertonia, swallowing problems, respiratory insufficiency, and epilepsy) and severe neutropenia associated with life-threatening infections. Individuals with moderate CLPB deficiency present with neurologic abnormalities in infancy including hypotonia and feeding problems, and develop spasticity, a progressive movement disorder (ataxia, dystonia, and/or dyskinesia), epilepsy, and intellectual disability. Neutropenia is variable, but not life threatening. In those with mild CLPB deficiency there is no neurologic involvement, intellect is normal, neutropenia is mild and intermittent, and life expectancy is normal.

Childhood-onset parkinsonism-dystonia-3 (PKDYS3) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder with onset in infancy or early childhood. Affected individuals present with progressive movement abnormalities, including parkinsonism with tremor, dystonia, myoclonus ataxia, and hyperkinetic movements such as ballismus. The parkinsonism features may be responsive to treatment with levodopa, although many patients develop levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Some patients may have mild cognitive impairment or psychiatric disturbances (summary by Burke et al., 2018 and Skorvanek et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of PKDYS, see 613135.

Tessadori-Bicknell-van Haaften neurodevelopmental syndrome-1 (TEBIVANED1) is characterized by poor overall growth with short stature, microcephaly, hypotonia, profound global developmental delay often with poor or absent speech, and characteristic dysmorphic facial features, including hypertelorism and abnormal nose. Other variable neurologic and systemic features may also occur (Tessadori et al., 2017). Genetic Heterogeneity of Tessadori-van Haaften Neurodevelopmental Syndrome See also TEBIVANED2 (619759), caused by mutation in the H4C11 gene (602826); TEBIVANED3 (619950), caused by mutation in the H4C5 gene (602830); and TEBIVANED4 (619951), caused by mutation in the H4C9 gene (602833).

Tessadori-Bicknell-van Haaften neurodevelopmental syndrome-2 (TEBIVANED2) is characterized by poor overall growth, profound global developmental delay with absent speech, and characteristic dysmorphic facial features, including hypertelorism, abnormal nose, and wide mouth (Tessadori et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Tessadori-Bicknell-van Haaften neurodevelopmental syndrome, see TEBIVANED1 (619758).

Kury-Isidor syndrome (KURIS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a highly variable phenotype. It is characterized mainly by mild global developmental delay apparent from infancy or early childhood with walking delayed by a few years and speech delay, often with language deficits. Intellectual development may be mildly delayed, borderline, or even normal; most patients have behavioral problems, including autism. Additional variable systemic features may include poor overall growth, hypotonia, distal skeletal anomalies, seizures, and nonspecific dysmorphic facial features (summary by Kury et al., 2022).

Immunodeficiency-96 (IMD96) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by onset of recurrent, usually viral, respiratory infections in infancy or early childhood. Other infections, including gastrointestinal and urinary tract infections, may also occur. Laboratory studies show hypogammaglobulinemia, lymphopenia with increased gamma/delta T cells, and erythrocyte macrocytosis. The disorder results from defective cellular DNA repair (summary by Maffucci et al., 2018).

Immunodeficiency-99 with hypogammaglobulinemia and autoimmune cytopenias (IMD99) is an autosomal recessive immunologic disorder characterized by the onset of recurrent sinopulmonary infections in early childhood. Laboratory studies reveal hypogammaglobulinemia with decreased memory B cells that show impaired class-switch recombination (CSR) and decreased somatic hypermutation (SHM). Due to abnormal antibody production and impaired self-tolerance, patients may develop autoimmune cytopenias, such as thrombocytopenia, or autoimmune features, such as vitiligo. There are also defects in the T-cell compartment (Kuhny et al., 2020).

Autoinflammatory-pancytopenia syndrome (AIPCS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe anemia and thrombocytopenia apparent from early infancy, hepatosplenomegaly, and recurrent fevers associated with a hyperinflammatory state. Additional systemic features may include chronic diarrhea, proteinuria with renal disease, liver fibrosis with elevated liver enzymes, deforming arthropathy, and vasculitic skin lesions. Some patients may have motor delay or learning difficulties associated with subcortical white matter lesions on brain imaging. Laboratory studies show increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines and increased expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), consistent with a type I interferonopathy (Rodero et al., 2017). Treatment with a JAK (see 147795) inhibitor (baricitinib) may be effective (Hong et al., 2020).

Neurodevelopmental disorder with language delay and seizures (NEDLDS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by global developmental delay with mild to severely impaired intellectual development and speech delay with poor or absent language. Affected individuals develop early-onset seizures that are usually well-controlled with medication. Additional features may include axial hypotonia, peripheral hypertonia, hypothyroidism, and nonspecific dysmorphic features or brain imaging abnormalities (Lu et al., 2022).

Braddock-Carey syndrome (BRDCS) is characterized by Pierre-Robin sequence, persistent congenital thrombocytopenia, agenesis of the corpus callosum, severe developmental delay, microcephaly, high forehead, sparse curly hair, downslanting palpebral fissures, telecanthus, inverted U-shaped upper vermilion, enamel hypoplasia, large posteriorly rotated ears, clinodactyly, and camptodactyly (Braddock et al., 2016). Genetic Heterogeneity of Braddock-Carey Syndrome BRDCS2 (619981) is caused by mutation in the KIF15 gene (617569) on chromosome 3p21.

Complex cortical dysplasia with other brain malformations-11 (CDCBM11) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by dilated ventricles and reduced white matter and associated with axonal developmental defects (Qian et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of CDCBM, see CDCBM1 (614039).

Familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia-8 (HHF8) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by protein-related hypoglycemia and persistent mild hyperammonemia (summary by Shahroor et al., 2022). For a phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, see HHF1 (256450).

Tessadori-Bicknell-van Haaften neurodevelopmental syndrome-3 (TEBIVANED3) is characterized by global developmental delay with poor overall growth, impaired intellectual development, and speech difficulties. More variable features include hypotonia, microcephaly, and dysmorphic facies. The severity and manifestations of the disorder are highly variable (Tessadori et al., 2022). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of Tessadori-Bicknell-van Haaften neurodevelopmental disorder, see TEBIVANED1 (619758).

Hypomyelinating leukodystrophy-25 (HLD25) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by horizontal nystagmus, hypotonia, and global developmental delay apparent soon after birth or in infancy. Most patients show gradual clinical improvement over time with resolution of the nystagmus in early childhood. Many achieve developmental milestones and may have normal cognition, although the severity of the disorder varies and some patients may have persistent neurologic deficits, such as ataxia or intellectual disability. Brain imaging shows hypomyelination that may also improve with time (Yan et al., 2022; do Rosario et al., 2022). For a general phenotypic description and a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of HLD, see 312080.

RECON progeroid syndrome (RECON) is a chromosomal instability disorder characterized by postnatal growth retardation, progeroid facial appearance, hypoplastic nose, prominent premaxilla, skin photosensitivity and xeroderma, muscle wasting with reduced subcutaneous fat, and slender elongated thumbs (Abu-Libdeh et al., 2022).

Ziegler-Huang syndrome (ZHS) is a bone marrow failure syndrome characterized by severe growth retardation responsive to growth hormone (GH1; 139250) treatment, testicular hypoplasia, and progressive bone marrow failure, with thrombocytopenia and macrocytosis developing in childhood (Huang et al., 2023). For a general phenotypic description and discussion of genetic heterogeneity of bone marrow failure syndromes, see BMFS1 (614675).

Coloboma is an ocular birth defect resulting from abnormal development of the eye during embryogenesis. It is defined as a congenital defect in any ocular tissue, typically presenting as absent tissue or a gap, at a site consistent with aberrant closure of the optic fissure. Failure of fusion can lead to coloboma of one or multiple regions of the inferior portion of the eye affecting any part of the globe traversed by the fissure, from the iris to the optic nerve, including the ciliary body, retina, and choroid. Coloboma is also frequently associated with small (microphthalmic) or absent (anophthalmic) eyes as part of an interrelated spectrum of developmental eye anomalies, and can affect either one or both eyes (summary by Kelberman et al., 2014). Microphthalmia/coloboma-12 (MCOPCB12) is characterized by inter- and intrafamilial variability. In addition to microphthalmia and coloboma, other ocular anomalies include iris hypoplasia, aphakia or small lens, lens subluxation, congenital cataract, microcornea, and sclerocornea. Some patients also exhibit neurodevelopmental anomalies (Deml et al., 2016; Williamson et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of colobomatous microphthalmia, see MCOPCB1 (300345).

Autosomal recessive intellectual developmental disorder-82 (MRT82) is characterized by global developmental delay with motor and speech delay, variably impaired intellectual development, and behavioral abnormalities (Mattioli et al., 2023).