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Hereditary spastic paraplegia 2(SPG2)

MedGen UID:
374177
Concept ID:
C1839264
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: Spastic paraplegia 2; SPASTIC PARAPLEGIA 2, X-LINKED; SPG2
SNOMED CT: X-linked spastic paraplegia type 2 (723622007); Spastic gait type 2 (723622007); Spastic paraparesis type 2 (723622007); Spastic paraplegia type 2 (723622007)
Modes of inheritance:
X-linked recessive inheritance
MedGen UID:
375779
Concept ID:
C1845977
Finding
Source: Orphanet
A mode of inheritance that is observed for recessive traits related to a gene encoded on the X chromosome. In the context of medical genetics, X-linked recessive disorders manifest in males (who have one copy of the X chromosome and are thus hemizygotes), but generally not in female heterozygotes who have one mutant and one normal allele.
 
Gene (location): PLP1 (Xq22.2)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0010733
OMIM®: 312920
Orphanet: ORPHA99015

Disease characteristics

Excerpted from the GeneReview: PLP1 Disorders
PLP1 disorders of central nervous system myelin formation include a range of phenotypes from Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD) to spastic paraplegia 2 (SPG2). PMD typically manifests in infancy or early childhood with nystagmus, hypotonia, and cognitive impairment; the findings progress to severe spasticity and ataxia. Life span is shortened. SPG2 manifests as spastic paraparesis with or without CNS involvement and usually normal life span. Intrafamilial variation of phenotypes can be observed, but the signs are usually fairly consistent within families. Heterozygous females may manifest mild-to-moderate signs of the disease. [from GeneReviews]
Authors:
Nicole I Wolf  |  Rosalina ML van Spaendonk  |  Grace M Hobson, et. al.   view full author information

Additional descriptions

From OMIM
The hereditary spastic paraplegias (SPG) are a group of clinically and genetically diverse disorders characterized by progressive, usually severe, lower extremity spasticity; see reviews of Fink et al. (1996) and Fink (1997). Some forms of SPG are considered 'uncomplicated,' i.e., progressive spasticity occurs in isolation; others are considered 'complicated,' i.e., progressive spasticity occurs with other neurologic features. X-linked, autosomal dominant (see 182600), and autosomal recessive (see 270800) forms of SPG have been described. For discussion of genetic heterogeneity of X-linked SPG, see 303350.  http://www.omim.org/entry/312920
From MedlinePlus Genetics
People with the pure form of spastic paraplegia type 2 experience spasticity in the lower limbs, usually without any additional features. People with the complex form of spastic paraplegia type 2 have lower limb spasticity and can also experience problems with movement and balance (ataxia); involuntary movements of the eyes (nystagmus); mild intellectual disability; involuntary, rhythmic shaking (tremor); and degeneration (atrophy) of the optic nerves, which carry information from the eyes to the brain. Symptoms usually become apparent between the ages of 1 and 5 years; those affected are typically able to walk and have a normal lifespan.

Spastic paraplegia type 2 is part of a group of genetic disorders known as hereditary spastic paraplegias. These disorders are characterized by progressive muscle stiffness (spasticity) and the development of paralysis of the lower limbs (paraplegia). Hereditary spastic paraplegias are divided into two types: pure and complex. The pure types involve the lower limbs. The complex types involve the lower limbs and can also affect the upper limbs to a lesser degree; the structure or functioning of the brain; and the nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to muscles and sensory cells that detect sensations such as touch, pain, heat, and sound (the peripheral nervous system). Spastic paraplegia type 2 can occur in either the pure or complex form.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/spastic-paraplegia-type-2

Clinical features

From HPO
Pes cavus
MedGen UID:
675590
Concept ID:
C0728829
Congenital Abnormality
An increase in height of the medial longitudinal arch of the foot that does not flatten on weight bearing (i.e., a distinctly hollow form of the sole of the foot when it is bearing weight).
Lower limb muscle weakness
MedGen UID:
324478
Concept ID:
C1836296
Finding
Weakness of the muscles of the legs.
Dysarthria
MedGen UID:
8510
Concept ID:
C0013362
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Dysarthric speech is a general description referring to a neurological speech disorder characterized by poor articulation. Depending on the involved neurological structures, dysarthria may be further classified as spastic, flaccid, ataxic, hyperkinetic and hypokinetic, or mixed.
Intellectual disability, mild
MedGen UID:
10044
Concept ID:
C0026106
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Mild intellectual disability is defined as an intelligence quotient (IQ) in the range of 50-69.
Babinski sign
MedGen UID:
19708
Concept ID:
C0034935
Finding
Upturning of the big toe (and sometimes fanning of the other toes) in response to stimulation of the sole of the foot. If the Babinski sign is present it can indicate damage to the corticospinal tract.
Spastic paraplegia
MedGen UID:
20882
Concept ID:
C0037772
Disease or Syndrome
Spasticity and weakness of the leg and hip muscles.
Hyperreflexia
MedGen UID:
57738
Concept ID:
C0151889
Finding
Hyperreflexia is the presence of hyperactive stretch reflexes of the muscles.
Spastic gait
MedGen UID:
115907
Concept ID:
C0231687
Finding
Spasticity is manifested by increased stretch reflex which is intensified with movement velocity. This results in excessive and inappropriate muscle activation which can contribute to muscle hypertonia. Spastic gait is characterized by manifestations such as muscle hypertonia, stiff knee, and circumduction of the leg.
Dysmetria
MedGen UID:
68583
Concept ID:
C0234162
Finding
A type of ataxia characterized by the inability to carry out movements with the correct range and motion across the plane of more than one joint related to incorrect estimation of the distances required for targeted movements.
Lower limb spasticity
MedGen UID:
220865
Concept ID:
C1271100
Finding
Spasticity (velocity-dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes with increased muscle tone and hyperexcitable tendon reflexes) in the muscles of the lower limbs, hips, and pelvis.
Loss of ambulation
MedGen UID:
332305
Concept ID:
C1836843
Finding
Inability to walk in a person who previous had the ability to walk.
Degeneration of the lateral corticospinal tracts
MedGen UID:
375921
Concept ID:
C1846566
Finding
Deterioration of the tissues of the lateral corticospinal tracts.
Abnormal cerebellum morphology
MedGen UID:
400925
Concept ID:
C1866129
Anatomical Abnormality
Any structural abnormality of the cerebellum.
Spinocerebellar tract degeneration
MedGen UID:
401075
Concept ID:
C1866751
Disease or Syndrome
Intellectual disability
MedGen UID:
811461
Concept ID:
C3714756
Mental or Behavioral Dysfunction
Intellectual disability, previously referred to as mental retardation, is characterized by subnormal intellectual functioning that occurs during the developmental period. It is defined by an IQ score below 70.
Flexion contracture
MedGen UID:
83069
Concept ID:
C0333068
Anatomical Abnormality
A flexion contracture is a bent (flexed) joint that cannot be straightened actively or passively. It is thus a chronic loss of joint motion due to structural changes in muscle, tendons, ligaments, or skin that prevents normal movement of joints.
Muscular atrophy
MedGen UID:
892680
Concept ID:
C0541794
Pathologic Function
The presence of skeletal muscular atrophy (which is also known as amyotrophy).
Nystagmus
MedGen UID:
45166
Concept ID:
C0028738
Disease or Syndrome
Rhythmic, involuntary oscillations of one or both eyes related to abnormality in fixation, conjugate gaze, or vestibular mechanisms.
Optic atrophy
MedGen UID:
18180
Concept ID:
C0029124
Disease or Syndrome
Atrophy of the optic nerve. Optic atrophy results from the death of the retinal ganglion cell axons that comprise the optic nerve and manifesting as a pale optic nerve on fundoscopy.

Term Hierarchy

CClinical test,  RResearch test,  OOMIM,  GGeneReviews,  VClinVar  
  • CROGVHereditary spastic paraplegia 2
Follow this link to review classifications for Hereditary spastic paraplegia 2 in Orphanet.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Gasser T, Finsterer J, Baets J, Van Broeckhoven C, Di Donato S, Fontaine B, De Jonghe P, Lossos A, Lynch T, Mariotti C, Schöls L, Spinazzola A, Szolnoki Z, Tabrizi SJ, Tallaksen CM, Zeviani M, Burgunder JM, Harbo HF; EFNS
Eur J Neurol 2010 Feb;17(2):179-88. Epub 2009 Dec 28 doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2009.02873.x. PMID: 20050888
Fink JK
Semin Neurol 2001 Jun;21(2):199-207. doi: 10.1055/s-2001-15265. PMID: 11442328
Fink JK, Hedera P
Semin Neurol 1999;19(3):301-9. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1040846. PMID: 12194386

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Shribman S, Reid E, Crosby AH, Houlden H, Warner TT
Lancet Neurol 2019 Dec;18(12):1136-1146. Epub 2019 Jul 31 doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30235-2. PMID: 31377012
Marelli C, Salsano E, Politi LS, Labauge P
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2019 Feb;90(2):211-218. Epub 2018 Aug 27 doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2018-318666. PMID: 30150321
Nicolas A, Kenna KP, Renton AE, Ticozzi N, Faghri F, Chia R, Dominov JA, Kenna BJ, Nalls MA, Keagle P, Rivera AM, van Rheenen W, Murphy NA, van Vugt JJFA, Geiger JT, Van der Spek RA, Pliner HA, Shankaracharya, Smith BN, Marangi G, Topp SD, Abramzon Y, Gkazi AS, Eicher JD, Kenna A; ITALSGEN Consortium, Mora G, Calvo A, Mazzini L, Riva N, Mandrioli J, Caponnetto C, Battistini S, Volanti P, La Bella V, Conforti FL, Borghero G, Messina S, Simone IL, Trojsi F, Salvi F, Logullo FO, D'Alfonso S, Corrado L, Capasso M, Ferrucci L; Genomic Translation for ALS Care (GTAC) Consortium, Moreno CAM, Kamalakaran S, Goldstein DB; ALS Sequencing Consortium, Gitler AD, Harris T, Myers RM; NYGC ALS Consortium, Phatnani H, Musunuri RL, Evani US, Abhyankar A, Zody MC; Answer ALS Foundation, Kaye J, Finkbeiner S, Wyman SK, LeNail A, Lima L, Fraenkel E, Svendsen CN, Thompson LM, Van Eyk JE, Berry JD, Miller TM, Kolb SJ, Cudkowicz M, Baxi E; Clinical Research in ALS and Related Disorders for Therapeutic Development (CReATe) Consortium, Benatar M, Taylor JP, Rampersaud E, Wu G, Wuu J; SLAGEN Consortium, Lauria G, Verde F, Fogh I, Tiloca C, Comi GP, Sorarù G, Cereda C; French ALS Consortium, Corcia P, Laaksovirta H, Myllykangas L, Jansson L, Valori M, Ealing J, Hamdalla H, Rollinson S, Pickering-Brown S, Orrell RW, Sidle KC, Malaspina A, Hardy J, Singleton AB, Johnson JO, Arepalli S, Sapp PC, McKenna-Yasek D, Polak M, Asress S, Al-Sarraj S, King A, Troakes C, Vance C, de Belleroche J, Baas F, Ten Asbroek ALMA, Muñoz-Blanco JL, Hernandez DG, Ding J, Gibbs JR, Scholz SW, Floeter MK, Campbell RH, Landi F, Bowser R, Pulst SM, Ravits JM, MacGowan DJL, Kirby J, Pioro EP, Pamphlett R, Broach J, Gerhard G, Dunckley TL, Brady CB, Kowall NW, Troncoso JC, Le Ber I, Mouzat K, Lumbroso S, Heiman-Patterson TD, Kamel F, Van Den Bosch L, Baloh RH, Strom TM, Meitinger T, Shatunov A, Van Eijk KR, de Carvalho M, Kooyman M, Middelkoop B, Moisse M, McLaughlin RL, Van Es MA, Weber M, Boylan KB, Van Blitterswijk M, Rademakers R, Morrison KE, Basak AN, Mora JS, Drory VE, Shaw PJ, Turner MR, Talbot K, Hardiman O, Williams KL, Fifita JA, Nicholson GA, Blair IP, Rouleau GA, Esteban-Pérez J, García-Redondo A, Al-Chalabi A; Project MinE ALS Sequencing Consortium, Rogaeva E, Zinman L, Ostrow LW, Maragakis NJ, Rothstein JD, Simmons Z, Cooper-Knock J, Brice A, Goutman SA, Feldman EL, Gibson SB, Taroni F, Ratti A, Gellera C, Van Damme P, Robberecht W, Fratta P, Sabatelli M, Lunetta C, Ludolph AC, Andersen PM, Weishaupt JH, Camu W, Trojanowski JQ, Van Deerlin VM, Brown RH Jr, van den Berg LH, Veldink JH, Harms MB, Glass JD, Stone DJ, Tienari P, Silani V, Chiò A, Shaw CE, Traynor BJ, Landers JE
Neuron 2018 Mar 21;97(6):1267-1288. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.02.027. PMID: 29566793Free PMC Article
Ruano L, Melo C, Silva MC, Coutinho P
Neuroepidemiology 2014;42(3):174-83. Epub 2014 Mar 5 doi: 10.1159/000358801. PMID: 24603320
Fink JK
Acta Neuropathol 2013 Sep;126(3):307-28. Epub 2013 Jul 30 doi: 10.1007/s00401-013-1115-8. PMID: 23897027Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

Méreaux JL, Banneau G, Papin M, Coarelli G, Valter R, Raymond L, Kol B, Ariste O, Parodi L, Tissier L, Mairey M, Ait Said S, Gautier C, Guillaud-Bataille M; French SPATAX clinical network, Forlani S, de la Grange P, Brice A, Vazza G, Durr A, Leguern E, Stevanin G
Brain 2022 Apr 29;145(3):1029-1037. doi: 10.1093/brain/awab386. PMID: 34983064
Shribman S, Reid E, Crosby AH, Houlden H, Warner TT
Lancet Neurol 2019 Dec;18(12):1136-1146. Epub 2019 Jul 31 doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30235-2. PMID: 31377012
Marelli C, Salsano E, Politi LS, Labauge P
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2019 Feb;90(2):211-218. Epub 2018 Aug 27 doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2018-318666. PMID: 30150321
Nicolas A, Kenna KP, Renton AE, Ticozzi N, Faghri F, Chia R, Dominov JA, Kenna BJ, Nalls MA, Keagle P, Rivera AM, van Rheenen W, Murphy NA, van Vugt JJFA, Geiger JT, Van der Spek RA, Pliner HA, Shankaracharya, Smith BN, Marangi G, Topp SD, Abramzon Y, Gkazi AS, Eicher JD, Kenna A; ITALSGEN Consortium, Mora G, Calvo A, Mazzini L, Riva N, Mandrioli J, Caponnetto C, Battistini S, Volanti P, La Bella V, Conforti FL, Borghero G, Messina S, Simone IL, Trojsi F, Salvi F, Logullo FO, D'Alfonso S, Corrado L, Capasso M, Ferrucci L; Genomic Translation for ALS Care (GTAC) Consortium, Moreno CAM, Kamalakaran S, Goldstein DB; ALS Sequencing Consortium, Gitler AD, Harris T, Myers RM; NYGC ALS Consortium, Phatnani H, Musunuri RL, Evani US, Abhyankar A, Zody MC; Answer ALS Foundation, Kaye J, Finkbeiner S, Wyman SK, LeNail A, Lima L, Fraenkel E, Svendsen CN, Thompson LM, Van Eyk JE, Berry JD, Miller TM, Kolb SJ, Cudkowicz M, Baxi E; Clinical Research in ALS and Related Disorders for Therapeutic Development (CReATe) Consortium, Benatar M, Taylor JP, Rampersaud E, Wu G, Wuu J; SLAGEN Consortium, Lauria G, Verde F, Fogh I, Tiloca C, Comi GP, Sorarù G, Cereda C; French ALS Consortium, Corcia P, Laaksovirta H, Myllykangas L, Jansson L, Valori M, Ealing J, Hamdalla H, Rollinson S, Pickering-Brown S, Orrell RW, Sidle KC, Malaspina A, Hardy J, Singleton AB, Johnson JO, Arepalli S, Sapp PC, McKenna-Yasek D, Polak M, Asress S, Al-Sarraj S, King A, Troakes C, Vance C, de Belleroche J, Baas F, Ten Asbroek ALMA, Muñoz-Blanco JL, Hernandez DG, Ding J, Gibbs JR, Scholz SW, Floeter MK, Campbell RH, Landi F, Bowser R, Pulst SM, Ravits JM, MacGowan DJL, Kirby J, Pioro EP, Pamphlett R, Broach J, Gerhard G, Dunckley TL, Brady CB, Kowall NW, Troncoso JC, Le Ber I, Mouzat K, Lumbroso S, Heiman-Patterson TD, Kamel F, Van Den Bosch L, Baloh RH, Strom TM, Meitinger T, Shatunov A, Van Eijk KR, de Carvalho M, Kooyman M, Middelkoop B, Moisse M, McLaughlin RL, Van Es MA, Weber M, Boylan KB, Van Blitterswijk M, Rademakers R, Morrison KE, Basak AN, Mora JS, Drory VE, Shaw PJ, Turner MR, Talbot K, Hardiman O, Williams KL, Fifita JA, Nicholson GA, Blair IP, Rouleau GA, Esteban-Pérez J, García-Redondo A, Al-Chalabi A; Project MinE ALS Sequencing Consortium, Rogaeva E, Zinman L, Ostrow LW, Maragakis NJ, Rothstein JD, Simmons Z, Cooper-Knock J, Brice A, Goutman SA, Feldman EL, Gibson SB, Taroni F, Ratti A, Gellera C, Van Damme P, Robberecht W, Fratta P, Sabatelli M, Lunetta C, Ludolph AC, Andersen PM, Weishaupt JH, Camu W, Trojanowski JQ, Van Deerlin VM, Brown RH Jr, van den Berg LH, Veldink JH, Harms MB, Glass JD, Stone DJ, Tienari P, Silani V, Chiò A, Shaw CE, Traynor BJ, Landers JE
Neuron 2018 Mar 21;97(6):1267-1288. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.02.027. PMID: 29566793Free PMC Article
Ruano L, Melo C, Silva MC, Coutinho P
Neuroepidemiology 2014;42(3):174-83. Epub 2014 Mar 5 doi: 10.1159/000358801. PMID: 24603320

Therapy

Chen X, Dong T, Hu Y, De Pace R, Mattera R, Eberhardt K, Ziegler M, Pirovolakis T, Sahin M, Bonifacino JS, Ebrahimi-Fakhari D, Gray SJ
J Clin Invest 2023 May 15;133(10) doi: 10.1172/JCI164575. PMID: 36951961Free PMC Article
van de Venis L, van de Warrenburg B, Weerdesteyn V, Geurts ACH, Nonnekes J
Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2023 Jan;37(1):27-36. Epub 2023 Jan 25 doi: 10.1177/15459683221147839. PMID: 36695288Free PMC Article
Lin Q, Liu Y, Ye Z, Hu J, Cai W, Weng Q, Chen WJ, Wang N, Cao D, Lin Y, Fu Y
Orphanet J Rare Dis 2021 Sep 19;16(1):391. doi: 10.1186/s13023-021-02014-w. PMID: 34538260Free PMC Article
Béreau M, Anheim M, Chanson JB, Tio G, Echaniz-Laguna A, Depienne C, Collongues N, de Sèze J
J Neurol 2015 May;262(5):1285-8. Epub 2015 Mar 26 doi: 10.1007/s00415-015-7707-6. PMID: 25808501
Margetis K, Korfias S, Boutos N, Gatzonis S, Themistocleous M, Siatouni A, Dalivigka Z, Flaskas T, Stranjalis G, Boviatsis E, Sakas D
Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2014 Aug;123:142-5. Epub 2014 Jun 4 doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2014.05.024. PMID: 24973568

Prognosis

Eckhardt M
Int J Mol Sci 2023 Mar 3;24(5) doi: 10.3390/ijms24054908. PMID: 36902339Free PMC Article
Diarra S, Coulibaly T, Dembélé K, Ngouth N, Cissé L, Diallo SH, Ouologuem M, Diallo S, Coulibaly O, Bagayoko K, Coulibaly D, Simaga A, Sango HA, Traoré M, Jacobson S, Fischbeck KH, Landouré G, Guinto CO; H3Africa consortium
Acta Neurol Belg 2023 Dec;123(6):2155-2165. Epub 2022 Nov 17 doi: 10.1007/s13760-022-02113-w. PMID: 36396882
Tábara LC, Al-Salmi F, Maroofian R, Al-Futaisi AM, Al-Murshedi F, Kennedy J, Day JO, Courtin T, Al-Khayat A, Galedari H, Mazaheri N, Protasoni M, Johnson M, Leslie JS, Salter CG, Rawlins LE, Fasham J, Al-Maawali A, Voutsina N, Charles P, Harrold L, Keren B, Kunji ERS, Vona B, Jelodar G, Sedaghat A, Shariati G, Houlden H, Crosby AH, Prudent J, Baple EL
Brain 2022 Sep 14;145(9):3095-3107. doi: 10.1093/brain/awac123. PMID: 35718349Free PMC Article
Méreaux JL, Banneau G, Papin M, Coarelli G, Valter R, Raymond L, Kol B, Ariste O, Parodi L, Tissier L, Mairey M, Ait Said S, Gautier C, Guillaud-Bataille M; French SPATAX clinical network, Forlani S, de la Grange P, Brice A, Vazza G, Durr A, Leguern E, Stevanin G
Brain 2022 Apr 29;145(3):1029-1037. doi: 10.1093/brain/awab386. PMID: 34983064
Tranchant C, Koob M, Anheim M
Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2017 Jun;39:4-16. Epub 2017 Feb 22 doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2017.02.025. PMID: 28256436

Clinical prediction guides

Tazir M, Nouioua S
Rev Neurol (Paris) 2024 Dec;180(10):1031-1036. Epub 2024 May 3 doi: 10.1016/j.neurol.2023.09.005. PMID: 38702287
Chen X, Dong T, Hu Y, De Pace R, Mattera R, Eberhardt K, Ziegler M, Pirovolakis T, Sahin M, Bonifacino JS, Ebrahimi-Fakhari D, Gray SJ
J Clin Invest 2023 May 15;133(10) doi: 10.1172/JCI164575. PMID: 36951961Free PMC Article
Diarra S, Coulibaly T, Dembélé K, Ngouth N, Cissé L, Diallo SH, Ouologuem M, Diallo S, Coulibaly O, Bagayoko K, Coulibaly D, Simaga A, Sango HA, Traoré M, Jacobson S, Fischbeck KH, Landouré G, Guinto CO; H3Africa consortium
Acta Neurol Belg 2023 Dec;123(6):2155-2165. Epub 2022 Nov 17 doi: 10.1007/s13760-022-02113-w. PMID: 36396882
Méreaux JL, Banneau G, Papin M, Coarelli G, Valter R, Raymond L, Kol B, Ariste O, Parodi L, Tissier L, Mairey M, Ait Said S, Gautier C, Guillaud-Bataille M; French SPATAX clinical network, Forlani S, de la Grange P, Brice A, Vazza G, Durr A, Leguern E, Stevanin G
Brain 2022 Apr 29;145(3):1029-1037. doi: 10.1093/brain/awab386. PMID: 34983064
Minnerop M, Kurzwelly D, Wagner H, Soehn AS, Reichbauer J, Tao F, Rattay TW, Peitz M, Rehbach K, Giorgetti A, Pyle A, Thiele H, Altmüller J, Timmann D, Karaca I, Lennarz M, Baets J, Hengel H, Synofzik M, Atasu B, Feely S, Kennerson M, Stendel C, Lindig T, Gonzalez MA, Stirnberg R, Sturm M, Roeske S, Jung J, Bauer P, Lohmann E, Herms S, Heilmann-Heimbach S, Nicholson G, Mahanjah M, Sharkia R, Carloni P, Brüstle O, Klopstock T, Mathews KD, Shy ME, de Jonghe P, Chinnery PF, Horvath R, Kohlhase J, Schmitt I, Wolf M, Greschus S, Amunts K, Maier W, Schöls L, Nürnberg P, Zuchner S, Klockgether T, Ramirez A, Schüle R
Brain 2017 Jun 1;140(6):1561-1578. doi: 10.1093/brain/awx095. PMID: 28459997Free PMC Article

Recent systematic reviews

Fereshtehnejad SM, Saleh PA, Oliveira LM, Patel N, Bhowmick S, Saranza G, Kalia LV
Neurol Sci 2023 Mar;44(3):947-959. Epub 2022 Nov 28 doi: 10.1007/s10072-022-06516-8. PMID: 36441344Free PMC Article
Vecchia SD, Tessa A, Dosi C, Baldacci J, Pasquariello R, Antenora A, Astrea G, Bassi MT, Battini R, Casali C, Cioffi E, Conti G, De Michele G, Ferrari AR, Filla A, Fiorillo C, Fusco C, Gallone S, Germiniasi C, Guerrini R, Haggiag S, Lopergolo D, Martinuzzi A, Melani F, Mignarri A, Panzeri E, Pini A, Pinto AM, Pochiero F, Primiano G, Procopio E, Renieri A, Romaniello R, Sancricca C, Servidei S, Spagnoli C, Ticci C, Rubegni A, Santorelli FM
J Neurol 2022 Jan;269(1):437-450. Epub 2021 Sep 6 doi: 10.1007/s00415-021-10792-3. PMID: 34487232
Tranchant C, Koob M, Anheim M
Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2017 Jun;39:4-16. Epub 2017 Feb 22 doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2017.02.025. PMID: 28256436
Ruano L, Melo C, Silva MC, Coutinho P
Neuroepidemiology 2014;42(3):174-83. Epub 2014 Mar 5 doi: 10.1159/000358801. PMID: 24603320
Loureiro JL, Brandão E, Ruano L, Brandão AF, Lopes AM, Thieleke-Matos C, Miller-Fleming L, Cruz VT, Barbosa M, Silveira I, Stevanin G, Pinto-Basto J, Sequeiros J, Alonso I, Coutinho P
JAMA Neurol 2013 Apr;70(4):481-7. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.1956. PMID: 23400676

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