Key Points

Introduction

See section 1, "Overall Methods Used To Develop This Report," for literature search strategy and tally of results for the EPR—3: Full Report 2007 on this component, "Control of Environmental Factors and Comorbid Conditions That Affect Asthma." Two Evidence Tables were prepared: 9, Allergen Avoidance; and 10, Immunotherapy.

For successful long-term management of asthma, it is essential to identify and reduce exposures to relevant allergens and irritants and to control other factors that have been shown to increase asthma symptoms and/or precipitate asthma exacerbations. These factors are in five categories: inhalant allergens, occupational exposures, irritants, comorbid conditions, and other factors. Ways to reduce the effects of these factors on asthma are discussed in this component of asthma management.

Inhalant Allergens

The Expert Panel recommends that patients who have asthma at any level of severity should be queried about exposures to inhalant allergens, particularly indoor inhalant allergens, and their potential effect on the patient's asthma (Evidence A). Exposure of a person who has asthma to inhalant allergens to which the person is sensitive increases airway inflammation and symptoms. Substantially reducing such exposure may significantly reduce inflammation, symptoms, and need for medication (See a summary of the evidence in box 3-5.).

Box 3-5

THE STRONG ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SENSITIZATION TO ALLERGENS AND ASTHMA: A SUMMARY OF THE EVIDENCE. The association of asthma and allergy has long been recognized. Recent studies confirm that sensitization among genetically susceptible populations to certain (more...)

DIAGNOSIS—DETERMINE RELEVANT INHALANT SENSITIVITY

Demonstrating a patient's relevant sensitivity to inhalant allergens will enable the clinician to recommend specific environmental controls to reduce exposures. It will also help the patient understand the pathogenesis of asthma and the value of allergen avoidance.

The Expert Panel recommends that, given the importance of allergens and their control to asthma morbidity and asthma management, patients who have persistent asthma should be evaluated for the role of allergens as possible contributing factors as follows (EPR—2 1997):

• ▪ Determine the patient's exposure to allergens, especially indoor inhalant allergens. (See relevant questions in figure 3-17.)
• ▪ Assess sensitivity to the allergens to which the patient is exposed.

  • — Use the patient's medical history, which is usually sufficient, to determine sensitivity to seasonal allergens.
  • — Use skin testing or in vitro testing to determine the presence of specific IgE antibodies to the indoor allergens to which the patient is exposed year round. (See figure 3-18 for a comparison of skin and in vitro tests.) Allergy testing is the only reliable way to determine sensitivity to perennial indoor allergens (See box 3-6 for further explanation.).
  • — For selected patients who have asthma at any level of severity, detection of specific IgE sensitivity to seasonal or perennial allergens may be indicated as a basis for education about the role of allergens for avoidance and for immunotherapy.
• ▪ Assess the clinical significance of positive allergy tests in the context of the patient's medical history (See figure 3-19.).

Figure 3-17

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS* FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER FACTORS THAT CAN MAKE ASTHMA WORSE

Figure 3-18

COMPARISON OF SKIN TESTS WITH IN VITRO TESTS

Box 3-6

RATIONALE FOR ALLERGY TESTING FOR PERENNIAL INDOOR ALLERGENS. Determination of sensitivity to a perennial indoor allergen is usually not possible with a patient's medical history alone (Murray and Milner 1995). Increased symptoms during vacuuming or bed (more...)

Figure 3-19

PATIENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS* FOR ASSESSING THE CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF POSITIVE ALLERGY TESTS

MANAGEMENT—REDUCE EXPOSURE

The Expert Panel recommends that patients should reduce exposure, as much as possible, to allergens to which the patient is sensitized and exposed:

• ▪ The first and most important step in controlling allergen-induced asthma is to advise patients to reduce exposure to relevant indoor and outdoor allergens to which the patient is sensitive (Evidence A) (See Evidence Table 9, Allergen Avoidance.).
• ▪ Effective allergen avoidance requires a multifaceted, comprehensive approach; individual steps alone are generally ineffective (Evidence A).
• ▪ Consider multifaceted allergen-control education interventions provided in the home setting that have been proven effective for reducing exposures to cockroach, dust-mite, and rodent allergens for patients sensitive to those allergens (Evidence A). Further research to evaluate the feasibility of widespread implementation of such programs will be helpful (see "Component 2: Education for a Partnership in Asthma Care.").

Effective ways patients can reduce their exposures to indoor and outdoor allergens are discussed below and summarized in figure 3-20, which also addresses irritants. Although these recommendations focus on the home environment, reductions in exposures to allergens and irritants are also appropriate in other environments where the patient spends extended periods of time, such as school, work, or daycare. For information about companies that distribute products to help reduce allergen exposure, contact the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America toll-free hotline at 800–727–8462 or the Allergy and Asthma Network/Mothers of Asthmatics at 800–878–4403.

Figure 3-20

SUMMARY OF MEASURES TO CONTROL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT CAN MAKE ASTHMA WORSE

See "Component 2: Education for a Partnership in Asthma Care" for a description of allergen-control education programs that are delivered in patients' homes. Multifaceted programs that focus on educating patients and providing tools for reducing exposure to cockroach, dust-mite, and rodent allergens have demonstrated success in reducing exposure and reducing asthma morbidity. Further evaluation is needed of the cost-effectiveness and feasibility for widespread implementation of these interventions; however, the efficacy of the interventions warrants their consideration, if available, for patients sensitive to these allergens.

Animal allergens. The Expert Panel recommends the following actions to control animal antigens (Evidence D):

• ▪ If the patient is sensitive to an animal, the treatment of choice is removal of the exposure from the home.
• ▪ If removal of the animal is not acceptable:

  • — Keep the pet out of the patient's bedroom.
  • — Keep the patient's bedroom door closed.
  • — Remove upholstered furniture and carpets from the home, or isolate the pet from these items to the extent possible.
  • — Mouse allergen exposure can be reduced by a combination of blocking access, low-toxicity pesticides, traps, and vacuuming and cleaning.

All warm-blooded animals, including pets and rodents, produce dander, urine, feces, and saliva that can cause allergic reactions (de Blay et al. 1991b; Swanson et al. 1985). Given recent evidence that exposure to cat allergens can be significant in homes, schools, and offices without animals, the issue of allergen avoidance in sites without animals has become more relevant. Successful controlled trials of animal dander avoidance have now been reported for schools and for homes without an animal (Popplewell et al. 2000). Studies suggest that mouse and rat allergen exposure and sensitization are common in urban children who have asthma (Phipatanakul et al. 2004).

High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) cleaners reduce airborne Can f 1 in homes with dogs. Furthermore, preventing the dog from having access to the bedroom, and possibly the living room, may reduce the total allergen load inhaled (Green et al. 1999). Weekly washing of the pet will remove large quantities of dander and dried saliva that will otherwise accumulate in the house; however, the role of washing in allergen avoidance is not established (Avner et al. 1997, de Blay et al. 1991a, Klucka et al. 1995).

House-dust mite allergen. The Expert Panel recommends the following mite-control measures; effective allergen avoidance requires a multifaceted approach (Evidence A).

• ▪ Recommended actions to control mites include:

  • — Encase the mattress in an allergen-impermeable cover.
  • — Encase the pillow in an allergen-impermeable cover or wash it weekly.
  • — Wash the sheets and blankets on the patient's bed weekly in hot water.
  • — A temperature of >130 °F is necessary for killing house-dust mites. Prolonged exposure to dry heat or freezing can also kill mites but does not remove allergen. If high temperature water is not available, a considerable reduction in live mites and mite allergens can still be achieved with cooler water and using detergent and bleach.
• ▪ Actions to consider to control mites include:

  • — Reduce indoor humidity to or below 60 percent, ideally between 30 and 50 percent.
  • — Remove carpets from the bedroom.
  • — Avoid sleeping or lying on upholstered furniture.
  • — Remove from the home carpets that are laid on concrete.
  • — In children's beds, minimize the number of stuffed toys, and wash them weekly.

House-dust mites are universal in areas of high humidity (most areas of the United States) but are usually not present at high altitudes or in arid areas unless moisture is added to the indoor air (Platts-Mills et al. 1997). Mites depend on atmospheric moisture and human dander for survival. High levels of mites can be found in dust from mattresses, pillows, carpets, upholstered furniture, bed covers, clothes, and soft toys. The patient's bed is the most important source of dust mites to control. Washing bedding is advised, preferably in hot water, but cold water, detergent, and bleach can also be effective (Arlian et al. 2003; McDonald and Tovey 1992). Several recent studies support the efficacy of allergen avoidance in the treatment of asthma (Carter et al. 2001; Halken et al. 2003; Htut et al. 2001; Morgan et al. 2004; Peroni et al. 2002; Rijssenbeek-Nouwens et al. 2003; van der Heide et al. 1997). Other studies provide important insight into the details of allergen avoidance. For example, three studies reported that mattress covers without other measures were not effective (Luczynska et al. 2003; Terreehorst et al. 2003; Woodcock et al. 2003). Likewise, two well-conducted studies failed to show an effect of HEPA filters alone (Francis et al. 2003; Wood et al. 1998). Thus, the conclusion remains that effective allergen avoidance requires a comprehensive approach, and that individual steps alone are generally ineffective (Platts-Mills et al. 2000).

Chemical agents are available for killing mites and denaturing the antigen; however, the effects are not dramatic and do not appear to be maintained for long periods. Therefore, use of these agents in the homes of persons who have asthma and are sensitive to house-dust mites should not be recommended routinely (Woodfolk et al. 1995). Vacuuming removes mite allergen from carpets but is inefficient at removing live mites.

Room air-filtering devices are not recommended for control of mite allergens, because the allergens are associated with large particles which remain airborne for only a few minutes after disturbance. They are, therefore, not susceptible to removal by air filtration.

Cockroach allergen. The Expert Panel recommends that cockroach control measures should be instituted if the patient is sensitive to cockroaches and infestation is present in the home (Evidence B).

Cockroach sensitivity and exposure are common among patients who have asthma and live in inner cities (Call et al. 1992; Gelber et al. 1993; Huss et al. 2001; Kang et al. 1993). In a study of asthma in an inner-city area, asthma severity increased with increasing levels of cockroach antigen in the bedrooms of children who were sensitized (Rosenstreich et al. 1997). Another major study demonstrated efficacy of cockroach avoidance as part of an overall plan for allergen avoidance (Morgan et al. 2004). Patients should not leave food or garbage exposed. Poison baits, boric acid, and traps are preferred to other chemical agents, because the latter can be irritating when inhaled by persons who have asthma. If volatile chemical agents are used, the home should be well ventilated, and the person who has asthma should not return to the home until the odor has dissipated. Care should be taken so that young children do not have access to cockroach baits and poisons.

Indoor fungi (molds). The Expert Panel recommends consideration of measures to control indoor mold (Evidence C). Indoor fungi are particularly prominent in humid environments and homes that have problems with dampness. Children who live in homes with dampness problems have increased respiratory symptoms (Institute of Medicine 2004; Verhoeff et al. 1995), but the relative contribution of fungi, house-dust mites, or irritants is not clear. Because an association between indoor fungi and respiratory and allergic disease is suggested by some studies (Bjornsson et al. 1995; Smedje et al. 1996; Strachan 1988), measures to control dampness or fungal growth in the home may be beneficial.

Outdoor allergens (tree, grass, and weed pollen; seasonal mold spores). The Expert Panel recommends that patients who are sensitive to seasonal outdoor allergens consider staying indoors, if possible, during peak pollen times—particularly midday and afternoon (EPR—2 1997). The strongest associations between mold-spore exposure and asthma have been with the outdoor fungi, such as Alternaria (Halonen et al. 1997; O'Hollaren et al. 1991; Targonski et al. 1995). Patients can reduce exposure during peak pollen season by staying indoors with windows closed in an air-conditioned environment (Solomon et al. 1980), particularly during the midday and afternoon when pollen and some spore counts are highest (Long and Kramer 1972; Mullins et al. 1986; Smith and Rooks 1954). Conducting outdoor activities shortly after sunrise will result in less exposure to pollen. These actions may not be realistic for some patients, especially children.

Occupational Exposures

The Expert Panel recommends that clinicians query patients who are employed and have asthma about possible occupational exposures, particularly those who have new-onset disease (EPR—2 1997). Early recognition and control of exposures are particularly important in occupationally induced asthma, because the likelihood of complete resolution of symptoms decreases with time (Pisati et al. 1993). Occupational asthma is suggested by a correlation between asthma symptoms and work, as well as with improvement when away from work for several days. Other indications of workplace exposure are listed in figure 3-21. The patient may fail to recognize the relationship with work, because symptoms often begin several hours after exposure. Recently, common jobs—such as domestic cleaner, laboratory technician, and house painter—have been associated with the disease (Moscato et al. 1995). Serial peak flow records at work and away from work can confirm the association between work and asthma (Nicholson et al. 2005).

Figure 3-21

EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WORK-AGGRAVATED ASTHMA AND OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA

Workplace exposure to sensitizing chemicals, allergens, or dusts can induce asthma which often persists after the exposures are terminated (Pisati et al. 1993). This effect should be distinguished from allergen- or irritant-induced aggravation of preexisting asthma.

Patient confidentiality issues are particularly important in work-related asthma. Because even general inquiries about the potential adverse health effects of work exposures may occasionally result in reprisals against the patient (e.g., job loss), patients who have asthma need to be informed of this possibility and be full partners in the decision to approach management regarding the effects or control of workplace exposures. This situation may require referral to an occupational asthma specialist.

Irritants

The Expert Panel recommends that clinicians query patients who have asthma at any level of severity about exposures to irritants that may cause their asthma to worsen, and advise them accordingly about reducing relevant exposures (EPR—2 1997). Sample assessment questions are in figure 3-17.

Comorbid Conditions

The Expert Panel recommends that clinicians evaluate a patient for presence of a chronic comorbid condition when the patient's asthma cannot be well controlled. Treating the following conditions may improve asthma management: ABPA (Evidence A), gastroesophageal reflux (Evidence B), obesity (Evidence B, limited studies), OSA (Evidence D), rhinitis/sinusitis (Evidence B), chronic stress/depression (Evidence D). Several chronic comorbid conditions have been demonstrated to impede asthma management. Evidence suggests that if the conditions are treated appropriately, asthma control can improve, although clearly some conditions are more readily addressed than others. Clinical judgment is needed to weigh the level of asthma control and patient circumstances to determine the appropriate approach.

Other Factors

Primary Prevention of Allergic Sensitization and Asthma

In the opinion of the Expert Panel, there is insufficient evidence to recommend any specific strategies to prevent the development of asthma.

Primary prevention of asthma—preventing initial development—is an active area of investigation. Although a number of trials have investigated dietary and environmental manipulations as preventive measures for asthma and allergy, clinical trials have not been uniform in their approaches, making firm conclusions difficult. Also, most of these interventions have been evaluated over a relatively short period of time, thus limiting their weight for any long-term implications.

Evaluations of dust-mite mitigation in homes of children of atopic parents show effectiveness of interventions in decreasing dust-mite levels as well as decreased incidence of wheezing (Custovic et al. 2001; Tsitoura et al. 2002). Prospective assessment of dust-mite reduction and cow's milk avoidance (breastfeeding or hydrolysate) appears to show protective effects at 8-year followup (Arshad et al. 2003), while breastfeeding, dust-mite and pet avoidance, and tobacco smoke avoidance were protective at 7-year followup (Chan-Yeung et al. 2005).

Trials evaluating breastfeeding have generally shown protective benefit (Chandra 1997; Gdalevich et al. 2001; Oddy et al. 1999), although there are conflicting studies (Sears et al. 2003; Wright et al. 2001). Pet exposure as preventive or provocative is controversial (Celedon et al. 2002; Ownby et al. 2002). Although interesting data support the development of tolerance rather than clinical disease after exposure to cat (Platts-Mills et al. 2001), there is also contrary information (Brussee et al. 2005).

Dietary modification or supplementation with antioxidants or omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to reduce the likelihood of asthma and allergic diseases requires further research (Devereux and Seaton 2005). Preliminary studies with probiotics show promise (Kalliomaki et al. 2001; Rautava et al. 2005) but require further study.

Several recent studies have suggested that acetaminophen may contribute to the pathogenesis of asthma and asthma-related symptoms. The effect has been observed in both children and adults in population-based, birth-cohort, and case-control studies. A comprehensive review of this topic has been published (Eneli et al. 2005). However, one potential limitation of many studies on intake of commonly available over-the-counter analgesics, such as acetaminophen, is the potential for confounding by indication (Signorello et al. 2002). In summary, preliminary evidence appears to indicate a possible association between acetaminophen intake and wheeze, but the data are limited and potentially confounded. Although choice of analgesic/antipyretic should always be made carefully, at the current time, it would be premature to recommend avoidance of acetaminophen.

Exposure to daycare in early childhood may be beneficial, while tobacco smoke exposure both in utero and in early childhood is a risk factor for asthma (Becker et al. 2004; Gergen et al. 1998; Gilliland et al. 2001). Larger family size may be preventive, with the incidence of asthma decreasing with an increasing number of siblings (Bodner et al. 1998; Mattes et al. 1999; Rona et al. 1997). The weight of evidence regarding larger family size, daycare exposure with more likelihood of respiratory infection, and country living is in keeping with the hygiene hypothesis of the origin of atopy and asthma. This hypothesis purports that more developed societies are more prone to higher incidence of allergy and asthma because their cleanliness downregulates immune processes for fighting infection in favor of those that cause atopic disease. Rural lifestyle may be protective compared to urban living (Bibi et al. 2002; Kauffmann et al. 2002).

References

1. Abadoglu O, Mungan D, Pasaoglu G, Celik G, Misirligil Z. Influenza vaccination in patients with asthma: effect on the frequency of upper respiratory tract infections and exacerbations. J Asthma. 2004;41(3):279–83. [PubMed: 15260460]
2. Abbey DE, Petersen F, Mills PK, Beeson WL. Long-term ambient concentrations of total suspended particulates, ozone, and sulfur dioxide and respiratory symptoms in a nonsmoking population. Arch Environ Health. 1993;48(1):33–46. [PubMed: 8452397]
3. Abramson MJ, Puy RM, Weiner JM. Allergen immunotherapy for asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(4):CD001186. [PubMed: 14583928]
4. Adams RJ, Fuhlbrigge AL, Finkelstein JA, Weiss ST. Intranasal steroids and the risk of emergency department visits for asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(4):636–42. [PubMed: 11941313]
5. Adkinson NF Jr,, Eggleston PA, Eney D, Goldstein EO, Schuberth KC, Bacon JR, Hamilton RG, Weiss ME, Arshad H, Meinert CL. et al. A controlled trial of immunotherapy for asthma in allergic children. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(5):324–31. [PubMed: 9011784]
6. Agabiti N, Mallone S, Forastiere F, Corbo GM, Ferro S, Renzoni E, Sestini P, Rusconi F, Ciccone G, Viegi G. et al. The impact of parental smoking on asthma and wheezing. SIDRIA Collaborative Group. Studi Italiani sui Disturbi Respiratori nell'Infanzia e l'Ambiente. Epidemiology. 1999;10(6):692–8. [PubMed: 10535782]
7. Akdis M, Akdis CA. Mechanisms of allergen-specific immunotherapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;119(4):780–9. Epub February 2007. [PubMed: 17321578]
8. American Academy of Allergy and Immunology Board of Directors. Guidelines to minimize the risk from systemic reactions caused by immunotherapy with allergenic extracts. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1994;93(4):811–2. [PubMed: 8163793]
9. American Lung Association Asthma Clinical Research Centers. The safety of inactivated influenza vaccine in adults and children with asthma. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(21):1529–36. [PubMed: 11794219]
10. Arbes SJ Jr,, Cohn RD, Yin M, Muilenberg ML, Burge HA, Friedman W, Zeldin DC. House dust mite allergen in US beds: results from the First National Survey of Lead and Allergens in Housing. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(2):408–14. [PubMed: 12589364]
11. Arlian LG, Neal JS, Morgan MS, Vyszenski-Moher DL, Rapp CM, Alexander AK. Reducing relative humidity is a practical way to control dust mites and their allergens in homes in temperate climates. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(1):99–104. [PubMed: 11149998]
12. Arlian LG, Vyszenski-Moher DL, Morgan MS. Mite and mite allergen removal during machine washing of laundry. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(6):1269–73. [PubMed: 12789228]
13. Arshad SH, Bateman B, Matthews SM. Primary prevention of asthma and atopy during childhood by allergen avoidance in infancy: a randomised controlled study. Thorax. 2003;58(6):489–93. [PMC free article: PMC1746711] [PubMed: 12775858]
14. Atkinson RW, Anderson HR, Sunyer J, Ayres J, Baccini M, Vonk JM, Boumghar A, Forastiere F, Forsberg B, Touloumi G. et al. Acute effects of particulate air pollution on respiratory admissions: results from APHEA 2 project. Air Pollution and Health: a European Approach. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(10 Pt 1):1860–6. [PubMed: 11734437]
15. Austin JB, Russell G. Wheeze, cough, atopy, and indoor environment in the Scottish Highlands. Arch Dis Child. 1997;76(1):22–6. [PMC free article: PMC1717042] [PubMed: 9059155]
16. Avidan B, Sonnenberg A, Schnell TG, Sontag SJ. Temporal associations between coughing or wheezing and acid reflux in asthmatics. Gut. 2001;49(6):767–72. [PMC free article: PMC1728538] [PubMed: 11709509]
17. Avner DB, Perzanowski MS, Platts-Mills TA, Woodfolk JA. Evaluation of different techniques for washing cats: quantitation of allergen removed from the cat and the effect on airborne Fel d 1. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;100(3):307–12. [PubMed: 9314341]
18. Bahceciler NN, Barlan IB, Nuhoglu Y, Basaran MM. Parental smoking behavior and the urinary cotinine levels of asthmatic children. J Asthma. 1999;36(2):171–5. [PubMed: 10227268]
19. Barr RG, Wentowski CC, Grodstein F, Somers SC, Stampfer MJ, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Camargo CA Jr. Prospective study of postmenopausal hormone use and newly diagnosed asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164(4):379–86. [PubMed: 14980988]
20. Bartlett SJ, Kolodner K, Butz AM, Eggleston P, Malveaux FJ, Rand CS. Maternal depressive symptoms and emergency department use among inner-city children with asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155(3):347–53. [PubMed: 11231800]
21. Bartlett SJ, Krishnan JA, Riekert KA, Butz AM, Malveaux FJ, Rand CS. Maternal depressive symptoms and adherence to therapy in inner-city children with asthma. Pediatrics. 2004;113(2):229–37. [PubMed: 14754931]
22. Becker A, Watson W, Ferguson A, Dimich-Ward H, Chan-Yeung M. The Canadian asthma primary prevention study: outcomes at 2 years of age. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113(4):650–6. [PubMed: 15100668]
23. Beeh KM, Beier J, Kornmann O, Meier C, Taeumer T, Buhl R. A single nasal allergen challenge increases induced sputum inflammatory markers in non-asthmatic subjects with seasonal allergic rhinitis: correlation with plasma interleukin-5. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(4):475–82. [PubMed: 12680863]
24. Belshe R, Lee MS, Walker RE, Stoddard J, Mendelman PM. Safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of intranasal, live attenuated influenza vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2004;3(6):643–54. [PubMed: 15606348]
25. Bergen R, Black S, Shinefield H, Lewis E, Ray P, Hansen J, Walker R, Hessel C, Cordova J, Mendelman PM. Safety of cold-adapted live attenuated influenza vaccine in a large cohort of children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23(2):138–44. [PubMed: 14872180]
26. Berges-Gimeno MP, Simon RA, Stevenson DD. Early effects of aspirin desensitization treatment in asthmatic patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2003a;90(3):338–41. [PubMed: 12669898]
27. Berges-Gimeno MP, Simon RA, Stevenson DD. Long-term treatment with aspirin desensitization in asthmatic patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003b;111(1):180–6. [PubMed: 12532116]
28. Bernstein DI, Wanner M, Borish L, Liss GM. Immunotherapy Committee, American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Twelve-year survey of fatal reactions to allergen injections and skin testing: 1990–2001. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113(6):1129–36. [PubMed: 15208595]
29. Bibi H, Shoseyov D, Feigenbaum D, Nir P, Shiachi R, Scharff S, Peled R. Comparison of positive allergy skin tests among asthmatic children from rural and urban areas living within small geographic area. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2002;88(4):416–20. [PubMed: 11991560]
30. Bjornsson E, Norback D, Janson C, Widstrom J, Palmgren U, Strom G, Boman G. Asthmatic symptoms and indoor levels of micro-organisms and house dust mites. Clin Exp Allergy. 1995;25(5):423–31. [PubMed: 7553245]
31. Bodner C, Godden D, Seaton A. Family size, childhood infections and atopic diseases. The Aberdeen WHEASE Group. Thorax. 1998;53(1):28–32. [PMC free article: PMC1758702] [PubMed: 9577518]
32. Boulet LP, Cartier A, Thomson NC, Roberts RS, Dolovich J, Hargreave FE. Asthma and increases in nonallergic bronchial responsiveness from seasonal pollen exposure. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1983;71(4):399–406. [PubMed: 6601124]
33. Braunstahl GJ, Kleinjan A, Overbeek SE, Prins JB, Hoogsteden HC, Fokkens WJ. Segmental bronchial provocation induces nasal inflammation in allergic rhinitis patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161(6):2051–7. [PubMed: 10852787]
34. Braunstahl GJ, Overbeek SE, Kleinjan A, Prins JB, Hoogsteden HC, Fokkens WJ. Nasal allergen provocation induces adhesion molecule expression and tissue eosinophilia in upper and lower airways. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(3):469–76. [PubMed: 11240947]
35. Brenner BE, Holmes TM, Mazal B, Camargo CA Jr. Relation between phase of the menstrual cycle and asthma presentations in the emergency department. Thorax. 2005;60(10):806–9. [PMC free article: PMC1747196] [PubMed: 16192365]
36. Broadfield EC, McKeever TM, Whitehurst A, Lewis SA, Lawson N, Britton J, Fogarty A. A case-control study of dietary and erythrocyte membrane fatty acids in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy. 2004;34(8):1232–6. [PubMed: 15298563]
37. Brush J, Mathé A. Psychiatric aspects. In: Weiss EB, Stein M, eds. Bronchial Asthma. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1993. pp. 1121–31.
38. Brussee JE, Smit HA, van Strien RT, Corver K, Kerkhof M, Wijga AH, Aalberse RC, Postma D, Gerritsen J, Grobbee DE. et al. Allergen exposure in infancy and the development of sensitization, wheeze, and asthma at 4 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(5):946–52. [PubMed: 15867850]
39. Bueving HJ, Bernsen RM, de Jongste JC, Suijlekom-Smit LW, Rimmelzwaan GF, Osterhaus AD, Rutten-van Molken MP, Thomas S, van der Wouden JC. Influenza vaccination in children with asthma: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169(4):488–93. [PubMed: 14656755]
40. Busse WW, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Coe C, Martin RJ, Weiss ST, Parker SR. NHLBI Workshop summary. Stress and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151(1):249–52. Review. [PubMed: 7812562]
41. Busse WW, Lemanske RF Jr, Stark JM, Calhoun WJ. The role of respiratory infections in asthma. In: Holgate ST, Austen KF, Lichtenstein LM, Kay AB, eds. Asthma: Physiology, Immunopharmacology and Treatment. London: Academic Press, 1993. Ch. 26, pp. 345–53.
42. Cabrera P, Julia-Serda G, Rodriguez de Castro F, Caminero J, Barber D, Carrillo T. Reduction of house dust mite allergens after dehumidifier use. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;95(2):635–6. [PubMed: 7852676]
43. Call RS, Smith TF, Morris E, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. Risk factors for asthma in inner city children. J Pediatr. 1992;121(6):862–6. [PubMed: 1447646]
44. Call RS, Ward G, Jackson S, Platts-Mills TA. Investigating severe and fatal asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1994;94(6 Pt 1):1065–72. [PubMed: 7798539]
45. Camargo CA Jr,, Weiss ST, Zhang S, Willett WC, Speizer FE. Prospective study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of adult-onset asthma in women. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159(21):2582–8. [PubMed: 10573048]
46. Canadian Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. Guidelines for the use of allergen immunotherapy. CMAJ. 1995;152(9):1413–9. [PMC free article: PMC1337905] [PubMed: 7728690]
47. Canonica GW, Passalacqua G. Noninjection routes for immunotherapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(3):437–48. quiz 449. [PubMed: 12642818]
48. Carter MC, Perzanowski MS, Raymond A, Platts-Mills TA. Home intervention in the treatment of asthma among inner-city children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108(5):732–737. [PubMed: 11692097]
49. Cates CJ, Jefferson TO, Bara AI, Rowe BH. Vaccines for preventing influenza in people with asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(2):CD000364. [PubMed: 15106150]
50. Celedon JC, Litonjua AA, Ryan L, Platts-Mills T, Weiss ST, Gold DR. Exposure to cat allergen, maternal history of asthma, and wheezing in first 5 years of life. Lancet. 2002;360(9335):781–2. [PubMed: 12241839]
51. Smith NM, Bresee JS, Shay DK, Uyeki TM, Cox NJ, Strikas RA. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and control of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR-10):1–42. Erratum in: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006;55(29):800. [PubMed: 16874296]
52. Chafee FH, Settipane GA. Aspirin intolerance. I. Frequency in an allergic population. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1974;53:193–9. [PubMed: 4835733]
53. Chan CS, Woolcock AJ, Sullivan CE. Nocturnal asthma: role of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;137(6):1502–4. [PubMed: 3059864]
54. Chandra RK. Five-year follow-up of high-risk infants with family history of allergy who were exclusively breast-fed or fed partial whey hydrolysate, soy, and conventional cow's milk formulas. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1997;24(4):380–8. [PubMed: 9144119]
55. Chan-Yeung M, Ferguson A, Watson W, Dimich-Ward H, Rousseau R, Lilley M, Dybuncio A, Becker A. The Canadian Childhood Asthma Primary Prevention Study: outcomes at 7 years of age. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;116(1):49–55. [PubMed: 15990772]
56. Chauhan AJ, Inskip HM, Linaker CH, Smith S, Schreiber J, Johnston SL, Holgate ST. Personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and the severity of virus-induced asthma in children. Lancet. 2003;361(9373):1939–44. [PMC free article: PMC7112409] [PubMed: 12801737]
57. Chen E, Bloomberg GR, Fisher EB Jr,, Strunk RC. Predictors of repeat hospitalizations in children with asthma: the role of psychosocial and socioenvironmental factors. Health Psychol. 2003;22(1):12–8. [PubMed: 12558197]
58. Cibella F, Cuttitta G. Nocturnal asthma and gastroesophageal reflux. Am J Med. 2001;111(Suppl 8A):31S–36S. [PubMed: 11749921]
59. Cody RP, Weisel CP, Birnbaum G, Lioy PJ. The effect of ozone associated with summertime photochemical smog on the frequency of asthma visits to hospital emergency departments. Environ Res. 1992;58(2):184–94. [PubMed: 1511672]
60. Corren J, Manning BE, Thompson SF, Hennessy S, Strom BL. Rhinitis therapy and the prevention of hospital care for asthma: a case-control study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113(3):415–9. [PubMed: 15007339]
61. Creticos PS, Reed CE, Norman PS, Khoury J, Adkinson NF Jr,, Buncher CR, Busse WW, Bush RK, Gadde J, Li JT. et al. Ragweed immunotherapy in adult asthma. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(8):501–6. [PubMed: 8559203]
62. Crombie IK, Wright A, Irvine L, Clark RA, Slane PW. Does passive smoking increase the frequency of health service contacts in children with asthma? Thorax. 2001;56(1):9–12. [PMC free article: PMC1745908] [PubMed: 11120897]
63. Crystal-Peters J, Neslusan C, Crown WH, Torres A. Treating allergic rhinitis in patients with comorbid asthma: the risk of asthma-related hospitalizations and emergency department visits. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(1):57–62. [PubMed: 11799366]
64. Cunningham AF, Johnston SL, Julious SA, Lampe FC, Ward ME. Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and asthma exacerbations in children. Eur Respir J. 1998;11(2):345–9. [PubMed: 9551736]
65. Currie GP, Lee DK, Anderson WJ. Vitamin E supplements in asthma. Thorax. 2005;60(2):171–2. author reply 172. [PMC free article: PMC1747299] [PubMed: 15681509]
66. Custis NJ, Woodfolk JA, Vaughan JW, Platts-Mills TA. Quantitative measurement of airborne allergens from dust mites, dogs, and cats using an ion-charging device. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(7):986–91. [PubMed: 12859457]
67. Custovic A, Simpson A, Woodcock A. Importance of indoor allergens in the induction of allergy and elicitation of allergic disease. Allergy. 1998;53(48 Suppl):115–20. [PubMed: 10096822]
68. Custovic A, Simpson BM, Simpson A, Kissen P, Woodcock A. NAC Manchester Asthma and Allergy Study Group. Effect of environmental manipulation in pregnancy and early life on respiratory symptoms and atopy during first year of life: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2001;358(9277):188–93. [PubMed: 11476835]
69. Davis RS, Larsen GL, Grunstein MM. Respiratory response to intraesophageal acid infusion in asthmatic children during sleep. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1983;72(4):393–8. [PubMed: 6619453]
70. de Blay F, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. Airborne cat allergen (Fel d I). Environmental control with the cat in situ. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991a;143(6):1334–9. [PubMed: 2048821]
71. de Blay F, Heymann PW, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. Airborne dust mite allergens: comparison of group II allergens with group I mite allergen and cat-allergen Fel d I. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1991b;88(6):919–26. [PubMed: 1744363]
72. Denjean A, Roux C, Herve P, Bonniot JP, Comoy E, Duroux P, Gaultier C. Mild isocapnic hypoxia enhances the bronchial response to methacholine in asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138(4):789–93. [PubMed: 3059883]
73. Des Roches A, Paradis L, Menardo JL, Bouges S, Daures JP, Bousquet J. Immunotherapy with a standardized Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus extract. VI. Specific immunotherapy prevents the onset of new sensitizations in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;99(4):450–3. [PubMed: 9111487]
74. Devereux G, Barker RN, Seaton A. Antenatal determinants of neonatal immune responses to allergens. Clin Exp Allergy. 2002;32(1):43–50. [PubMed: 12002736]
75. Devereux G, Seaton A. Diet as a risk factor for atopy and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(6):1109–1117. quiz 1118. Review. [PubMed: 15940119]
76. Diaz-Sanchez D, Garcia MP, Wang M, Jyrala M, Saxon A. Nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles can induce sensitization to a neoallergen in the human mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104(6):1183–8. [PubMed: 10588999]
77. Di Rienzo V, Marcucci F, Puccinelli P, Parmiani S, Frati F, Sensi L, Canonica GW, Passalacqua G. Long-lasting effect of sublingual immunotherapy in children with asthma due to house dust mite: a 10-year prospective study. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(2):206–10. [PubMed: 12580913]
78. Dolen WK. Skin testing and immunoassays for allergen-specific IgE. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2001;21(2–3):229–39. [PubMed: 11725606]
79. Dunlop G, Scadding GK, Lund VJ. The effect of endoscopic sinus surgery on asthma: management of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis, nasal polyposis, and asthma. Am J Rhinol. 1999;13(4):261–5. [PubMed: 10485011]
80. Dunn TL, Gerber MJ, Shen AS, Fernandez E, Iseman MD, Cherniack RM. The effect of topical ophthalmic instillation of timolol and betaxolol on lung function in asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986;133(2):264–8. [PubMed: 3946922]
81. Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A, Beilin LJ, Taylor AL, Holt PG, Prescott SL. Maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy reduces interleukin-13 levels in cord blood of infants at high risk of atopy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(4):442–8. [PubMed: 12680858]
82. Durham SR, Walker SM, Varga EM, Jacobson MR, O'Brien F, Noble W, Till SJ, Hamid QA, Nouri-Aria KT. Long-term clinical efficacy of grass-pollen immunotherapy. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(7):468–75. [PubMed: 10441602]
83. Ehrlich R, Jordaan E, Du TD, Potter P, Volmink J, Zwarenstein M, Weinberg E. Household smoking and bronchial hyperresponsiveness in children with asthma. J Asthma. 2001;38(3):239–51. [PubMed: 11392364]
84. Eisner MD, Blanc PD. Environmental tobacco smoke exposure during travel among adults with asthma. Chest. 2002;122(3):826–8. [PubMed: 12226020]
85. Eisner MD, Blanc PD. Gas stove use and respiratory health among adults with asthma in NHANES III. Occup Environ Med. 2003;60(10):759–64. [PMC free article: PMC1740397] [PubMed: 14504364]
86. Ellingson AR, LeDoux RA, Vedanthan PK, Weber RW. The prevalence of Dermatophagoides mite allergen in Colorado homes utilizing central evaporative coolers. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96(4):473–9. [PubMed: 7560657]
87. Eneli I, Sadri K, Camargo C Jr,, Barr RG. Acetaminophen and the risk of asthma: the epidemiologic and pathophysiologic evidence. Chest. 2005;127(2):604–12. [PubMed: 15706003]
88. EPR—2. Expert panel report 2: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma (EPR—2 1997). NIH Publication No. 97-4051. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; National Institutes of Health; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Asthma Education and Prevention Program, 1997.
89. Esposito S, Blasi F, Arosio C, Fioravanti L, Fagetti L, Droghetti R, Tarsia P, Allegra L, Principi N. Importance of acute Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in children with wheezing. Eur Respir J. 2000;16(6):1142–6. [PubMed: 11292120]
90. Field SK, Gelfand GA, McFadden SD. The effects of antireflux surgery on asthmatics with gastroesophageal reflux. Chest. 1999;116(3):766–74. [PubMed: 10492285]
91. Francis H, Fletcher G, Anthony C, Pickering C, Oldham L, Hadley E, Custovic A, Niven R. Clinical effects of air filters in homes of asthmatic adults sensitized and exposed to pet allergens. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(1):101–5. [PubMed: 12534557]
92. Frew AJ. Injection immunotherapy. British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology Working Party. BMJ. 1993;307(6909):919–23. [PMC free article: PMC1679037] [PubMed: 8241857]
93. Friedman EM, Coe CL, Ershler WB. Bidirectional effects of interleukin-1 on immune responses in rhesus monkeys. Brain Behav Immun. 1994;8(2):87–99. [PubMed: 8081023]
94. Fujieda S, Diaz-Sanchez D, Saxon A. Combined nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles and allergen induces in vivo IgE isotype switching. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1998;19(3):507–12. [PubMed: 9730879]
95. Garrett MH, Hooper MA, Hooper BM, Abramson MJ. Respiratory symptoms in children and indoor exposure to nitrogen dioxide and gas stoves. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158(3):891–5. [PubMed: 9731022]
96. Garrett MH, Hooper MA, Hooper BM, Rayment PR, Abramson MJ. Increased risk of allergy in children due to formaldehyde exposure in homes. Allergy. 1999;54(4):330–7. [PubMed: 10371091]
97. Garrison RA, Robertson LD, Koehn RD, Wynn SR. Effect of heating-ventilation-air conditioning system sanitation on airborne fungal populations in residential environments. Ann Allergy. 1993;71(6):548–56. [PubMed: 8267249]
98. Gdalevich M, Mimouni D, Mimouni M. Breast-feeding and the risk of bronchial asthma in childhood: a systematic review with meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Pediatr. 2001;139(2):261–6. [PubMed: 11487754]
99. Gelber LE, Seltzer LH, Bouzoukis JK, Pollart SM, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. Sensitization and exposure to indoor allergens as risk factors for asthma among patients presenting to hospital. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147(3):573–8. [PubMed: 8442589]
100. Gent JF, Triche EW, Holford TR, Belanger K, Bracken MB, Beckett WS, Leaderer BP. Association of low-level ozone and fine particles with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma. JAMA. 2003;290(14):1859–67. [PubMed: 14532314]
101. Gergen PJ, Fowler JA, Maurer KR, Davis WW, Overpeck MD. The burden of environmental tobacco smoke exposure on the respiratory health of children 2 months through 5 years of age in the United States: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988 to 1994. Pediatrics. 1998;101(2):E8. [PubMed: 9445518]
102. Gibson PG, Henry RL, Coughlan JL. Gastro-oesophageal reflux treatment for asthma in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(2):CD001496. [PubMed: 12804410]
103. Gilliland FD, Li YF, Peters JM. Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and environmental tobacco smoke on asthma and wheezing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163(2):429–36. [PubMed: 11179118]
104. Gilliland FD, Li YF, Saxon A, Diaz-Sanchez D. Effect of glutathione-S-transferase M1 and P1 genotypes on xenobiotic enhancement of allergic responses: randomised, placebo-controlled crossover study. Lancet. 2004;363(9403):119–25. [PubMed: 14726165]
105. Glasgow NJ, Ponsonby AL, Yates RE, McDonald T, Attewell R. Asthma screening as part of a routine school health assessment in the Australian Capital Territory. Med J Aust. 2001;174(8):384–8. [PubMed: 11346080]
106. Golbert TM, Patterson R, Pruzansky JJ. Systemic allergic reactions to ingested antigens. J Allergy. 1969;44(2):96–107. [PubMed: 4184542]
107. Green R, Simpson A, Custovic A, Faragher B, Chapman M, Woodcock A. The effect of air filtration on airborne dog allergen. Allergy. 1999;54(5):484–8. [PubMed: 10380780]
108. Greenberger PA. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110(5):685–92. [PubMed: 12417875]
109. Guerra S, Sherrill DL, Martinez FD, Barbee RA. Rhinitis as an independent risk factor for adult-onset asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(3):419–25. [PubMed: 11897985]
110. Guerra S, Wright AL, Morgan WJ, Sherrill DL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD. Persistence of asthma symptoms during adolescence: role of obesity and age at the onset of puberty. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;170(1):78–85. [PubMed: 15028559]
111. Gyllfors P, Bochenek G, Overholt J, Drupka D, Kumlin M, Sheller J, Nizankowska E, Isakson PC, Mejza F, Lefkowith JB. et al. Biochemical and clinical evidence that aspirin-intolerant asthmatic subjects tolerate the cyclooxygenase 2-selective analgetic drug celecoxib. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(5):1116–21. [PubMed: 12743579]
112. Haggerty CL, Ness RB, Kelsey S, Waterer GW. The impact of estrogen and progesterone on asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2003;90(3):284–91. [PubMed: 12669890]
113. Halken S, Host A, Niklassen U, Hansen LG, Nielsen F, Pedersen S, Osterballe O, Veggerby C, Poulsen LK. Effect of mattress and pillow encasings on children with asthma and house dust mite allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(1):169–76. [PubMed: 12532114]
114. Halonen M, Stern DA, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. Alternaria as a major allergen for asthma in children raised in a desert environment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155(4):1356–61. [PubMed: 9105079]
115. Harding SM. Gastroesophageal reflux and asthma: insight into the association. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104(2 Pt 1):251–9. [PubMed: 10452738]
116. Henderson FW, Henry MM, Ivins SS, Morris R, Neebe EC, Leu SY, Stewart PW. Correlates of recurrent wheezing in school-age children. The Physicians of Raleigh Pediatric Associates. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151(6):1786–93. [PubMed: 7767521]
117. Hiltermann JT, Lapperre TS, van Bree L, Steerenberg PA, Brahim JJ, Sont JK, Sterk PJ, Hiemstra PS, Stolk J. Ozone-induced inflammation assessed in sputum and bronchial lavage fluid from asthmatics: a new noninvasive tool in epidemiologic studies on air pollution and asthma. Free Radic Biol Med. 1999;27(11–12):1448–54. [PubMed: 10641740]
118. Horst M, Hejjaoui A, Horst V, Michel FB, Bousquet J. Double-blind, placebo-controlled rush immunotherapy with a standardized Alternaria extract. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990;85(2):460–72. [PubMed: 2406323]
119. Htut T, Higenbottam TW, Gill GW, Darwin R, Anderson PB, Syed N. Eradication of house dust mite from homes of atopic asthmatic subjects: a double-blind trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(1):55–60. [PubMed: 11149991]
120. Huss K, Adkinson NF Jr,, Eggleston PA, Dawson C, Van Natta ML, Hamilton RG. House dust mite and cockroach exposure are strong risk factors for positive allergy skin test responses in the Childhood Asthma Management Program. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(1):48–54. [PubMed: 11149990]
121. Ingram JM, Sporik R, Rose G, Honsinger R, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. Quantitative assessment of exposure to dog (Can f 1) and cat (Fel d 1) allergens: relation to sensitization and asthma among children living in Los Alamos, New Mexico. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96(4):449–56. [PubMed: 7560654]
122. Institute of Medicine. Damp Indoor Spaces and Health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2004. [PubMed: 25009878]
123. Irwin RS, Zawacki JK, Curley FJ, French CL, Hoffman PJ. Chronic cough as the sole presenting manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989;140(5):1294–300. [PubMed: 2817591]
124. Jaakkola JJ, Parise H, Kislitsin V, Lebedeva NI, Spengler JD. Asthma, wheezing, and allergies in Russian schoolchildren in relation to new surface materials in the home. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(4):560–2. [PMC free article: PMC1448297] [PubMed: 15054004]
125. James JM, Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Sampson HA. Respiratory reactions provoked by double-blind food challenges in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(1):59–64. [PubMed: 8111598]
126. Jenkins C, Costello J, Hodge L. Systematic review of prevalence of aspirin induced asthma and its implications for clinical practice. BMJ. 2004;328(7437):434. [PMC free article: PMC344260] [PubMed: 14976098]
127. Jenkins HS, Devalia JL, Mister RL, Bevan AM, Rusznak C, Davies RJ. The effect of exposure to ozone and nitrogen dioxide on the airway response of atopic asthmatics to inhaled allergen: dose- and time-dependent effects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160(1):33–9. [PubMed: 10390376]
128. Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, Smith S, Lampe F, Josephs L, Symington P, O'Toole S, Myint SH, Tyrrell DA. et al. Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9–11 year old children. BMJ. 1995;310(6989):1225–9. [PMC free article: PMC2549614] [PubMed: 7767192]
129. Johnstone DE, Dutton A. The value of hyposensitization therapy for bronchial asthma in children—a 14-year study. Pediatrics. 1968;42(5):793–802. [PubMed: 5685362]
130. Kalliomaki M, Salminen S, Arvilommi H, Kero P, Koskinen P, Isolauri E. Probiotics in primary prevention of atopic disease: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2001;357(9262):1076–9. [PubMed: 11297958]
131. Kang BC, Johnson J, Veres-Thorner C. Atopic profile of inner-city asthma with a comparative analysis on the cockroach-sensitive and ragweed-sensitive subgroups. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993;92(6):802–11. [PubMed: 8258614]
132. Kauffmann F, Oryszczyn MP, Maccario J. The protective role of country living on skin prick tests, immunoglobulin E and asthma in adults from the Epidemiological Study on the Genetics and Environment of Asthma, bronchial hyper-responsiveness and atopy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2002;32(3):379–86. [PubMed: 11940067]
133. Kaur B, Rowe BH, Ram FS. Vitamin C supplementation for asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(4):CD000993. Review. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(3):CD000993. [PubMed: 11687089]
134. Kerkhof M, De Monchy JG, Rijken B, Schouten JP. The effect of gas cooking on bronchial hyperresponsiveness and the role of immunoglobulin E. Eur Respir J. 1999;14(4):839–844. [PubMed: 10573231]
135. Kesten S, Szalai J, Dzyngel B. Air quality and the frequency of emergency room visits for asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995;74(3):269–73. [PubMed: 7889385]
136. Khinchi MS, Poulsen LK, Carat F, Andre C, Hansen AB, Malling HJ. Clinical efficacy of sublingual and subcutaneous birch pollen allergen-specific immunotherapy: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, double-dummy study. Allergy. 2004;59(1):45–53. [PubMed: 14674933]
137. Kiljander TO, Salomaa ER, Hietanen EK, Terho EO. Gastroesophageal reflux in asthmatics: a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study with omeprazole. Chest. 1999;116(5):1257–64. [PubMed: 10559084]
138. Klucka CV, Ownby DR, Green J, Zoratti E. Cat shedding of Fel d I is not reduced by washings, Allerpet-C spray, or acepromazine. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;95(6):1164–71. [PubMed: 7797784]
139. Koenig JQ, Covert DS, Marshall SG, Van Belle G, Pierson WE. The effects of ozone and nitrogen dioxide on pulmonary function in healthy and in asthmatic adolescents. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;136(5):1152–7. [PubMed: 3674577]
140. Koenig JQ, Larson TV, Hanley QS, Rebolledo V, Dumler K, Checkoway H, Wang SZ, Lin D, Pierson WE. Pulmonary function changes in children associated with fine particulate matter. Environ Res. 1993;63(1):26–38. [PubMed: 8404772]
141. Kompauer I, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B, Bolte G, Linseisen J, Heinrich J. n6/n3 hypothesis and allergies: biologically plausible, but not confirmed. Eur J Med Res. 2004;9(8):378–82. [PubMed: 15337627]
142. Kos-Kudla B, Ostrowska Z, Marek B, Ciesielska-Kopacz N, Kajdaniuk D, Kudla M. Effects of hormone replacement therapy on endocrine and spirometric parameters in asthmatic postmenopausal women. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2001;15(4):304–11. [PubMed: 11560105]
143. Kraft M, Cassell GH, Pak J, Martin RJ. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in asthma: effect of clarithromycin. Chest. 2002;121(6):1782–8. [PubMed: 12065339]
144. Kramarz P, DeStefano F, Gargiullo PM, Chen RT, Lieu TA, Davis RL, Mullooly JP, Black SB, Shinefield HR, Bohlke K. Vaccine Safety Datalink Team. et al. Does influenza vaccination prevent asthma exacerbations in children? J Pediatr. 2001;138(3):306–10. [PubMed: 11241034]
145. Leynaert B, Bousquet J, Neukirch C, Liard R, Neukirch F. Perennial rhinitis: an independent risk factor for asthma in nonatopic subjects: results from the European Community Respiratory Health Survey. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104(2 Pt 1):301–4. [PubMed: 10452748]
146. Lima MT, Wilson D, Pitkin L, Roberts A, Nouri-Aria K, Jacobson M, Walker S, Durham S. Grass pollen sublingual immunotherapy for seasonal rhinoconjunctivitis: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Exp Allergy. 2002;32(4):507–14. [PubMed: 11972594]
147. Linneberg A, Henrik NN, Frolund L, Madsen F, Dirksen A, Jorgensen T. The link between allergic rhinitis and allergic asthma: a prospective population-based study. The Copenhagen Allergy Study. Allergy. 2002;57(11):1048–52. [PubMed: 12359002]
148. Littner MR, Leung FW, Ballard ED, Huang B, Samra NK. Effects of 24 weeks of lansoprazole therapy on asthma symptoms, exacerbations, quality of life, and pulmonary function in adult asthmatic patients with acid reflux symptoms. Chest. 2005;128(3):1128–35. [PubMed: 16162697]
149. Long DL, Kramer CL. Air spora of two contrasting ecological sites in Kansas. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1972;49(5):255–66. [PubMed: 5019944]
150. Luczynska C, Tredwell E, Smeeton N, Burney P. A randomized controlled trial of mite allergen-impermeable bed covers in adult mite-sensitized asthmatics. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(12):1648–53. [PubMed: 14656350]
151. Malling HJ, Dreborg S, Weeke B. Diagnosis and immunotherapy of mould allergy. V. Clinical efficacy and side effects of immunotherapy with Cladosporium herbarum. Allergy. 1986;41(7):507–19. [PubMed: 3789332]
152. Maloney MJ, Wray BB, DuRant RH, Smith L, Smith L. Effect of an electronic air cleaner and negative ionizer on the population of indoor mold spores. Ann Allergy. 1987;59(3):192–4. [PubMed: 3631655]
153. Mannino DM, Moorman JE, Kingsley B, Rose D, Repace J. Health effects related to environmental tobacco smoke exposure in children in the United States: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155(1):36–41. [PubMed: 11177060]
154. Martin ME, Grunstein MM, Larsen GL. The relationship of gastroesophageal reflux to nocturnal wheezing in children with asthma. Ann Allergy. 1982;49(6):318–22. [PubMed: 6890782]
155. Martin RJ, Kraft M, Chu HW, Berns EA, Cassell GH. A link between chronic asthma and chronic infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(4):595–601. [PubMed: 11295645]
156. Martin RJ, Pak J. Nasal CPAP in nonapneic nocturnal asthma. Chest. 1991;100(4):1024–7. [PubMed: 1914551]
157. Martindale S, McNeill G, Devereux G, Campbell D, Russell G, Seaton A. Antioxidant intake in pregnancy in relation to wheeze and eczema in the first two years of life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171(2):121–128. Epub November 2004. [PubMed: 15531754]
158. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. The Group Health Medical Associates. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(3):133–8. [PubMed: 7800004]
159. Mattes J, Karmaus W, Storm van's Gravesande K, Moseler M, Forster J, Kuehr J. Pulmonary function in children of school age is related to the number of siblings in their family. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1999;28(6):414–7. [PubMed: 10587415]
160. McConnell R, Berhane K, Gilliland F, Islam T, Gauderman WJ, London SJ, Avol E, Rappaport EB, Margolis HG, Peters JM. Indoor risk factors for asthma in a prospective study of adolescents. Epidemiology. 2002;13(3):288–95. [PubMed: 11964930]
161. McDonald LG, Tovey E. The role of water temperature and laundry procedures in reducing house dust mite populations and allergen content of bedding. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1992;90(4 Pt 1):599–608. [PubMed: 1401643]
162. McKeever TM, Lewis SA, Smit H, Burney P, Britton J, Cassano PA. Serum nutrient markers and skin prick testing using data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;114(6):1398–402. [PubMed: 15577844]
163. Mihrshahi S, Peat JK, Marks GB, Mellis CM, Tovey ER, Webb K, Britton WJ, Leeder SR. Childhood Asthma Prevention Study. Eighteen-month outcomes of house dust mite avoidance and dietary fatty acid modification in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study (CAPS). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(1):162–8. Erratum in: J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111(4):735. [PubMed: 12532113]
164. Mihrshahi S, Peat JK, Webb K, Oddy W, Marks GB, Mellis CM. CAPS Team. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid concentrations in plasma on symptoms of asthma at 18 months of age. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2004;15(6):517–22. [PubMed: 15610365]
165. Miles JF, Garden GM, Tunnicliffe WS, Cayton RM, Ayres JG. Psychological morbidity and coping skills in patients with brittle and non-brittle asthma: a case-control study. Clin Exp Allergy. 1997;27(10):1151–9. [PubMed: 9383255]
166. Moller C, Dreborg S, Ferdousi HA, Halken S, Host A, Jacobsen L, Koivikko A, Koller DY, Niggemann B, Norberg LA. et al. Pollen immunotherapy reduces the development of asthma in children with seasonal rhinoconjunctivitis (the PAT-study). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(2):251–6. [PubMed: 11842293]
167. Morgan WJ, Crain EF, Gruchalla RS, O'Connor GT, Kattan M, Evans R III,, Stout J, Malindzak G, Smartt E, Plaut M. Inner-City Asthma Study Group. et al. Results of a home-based environmental intervention among urban children with asthma. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(11):1068–80. [PubMed: 15356304]
168. Moscato G, Godnic-Cvar J, Maestrelli P, Malo JL, Burge PS, Coifman R. Statement on self-monitoring of peak expiratory flows in the investigation of occupational asthma. Subcommittee on Occupational Allergy of the European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology. American Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. European Respiratory Society. American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Eur Respir J. 1995;8(9):1605–10. [PubMed: 8575590]
169. Moseholm L, Taudorf E, Frosig A. Pulmonary function changes in asthmatics associated with low-level SO₂ and NO₂ air pollution, weather, and medicine intake. An 8-month prospective study analyzed by neural networks. Allergy. 1993;48(5):334–44. [PubMed: 8368460]
170. Mosser AG, Vrtis R, Burchell L, Lee WM, Dick CR, Weisshaar E, Bock D, Swenson CA, Cornwell RD, Meyer KC. et al. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of rhinovirus infection in bronchial tissues. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171(6):645–51. [PubMed: 15591468]
171. Mullins J, White J, Davies BH. Circadian periodicity of grass pollen. Ann Allergy. 1986;57(5):371–4. [PubMed: 3777538]
172. Murray AB, Ferguson AC, Morrison BJ. Diagnosis of house dust mite allergy in asthmatic children: what constitutes a positive history? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1983;71(1 Pt 1):21–8. [PubMed: 6822690]
173. Murray AB, Milner RA. The accuracy of features in the clinical history for predicting atopic sensitization to airborne allergens in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96(5 Pt 1):588–96. [PubMed: 7499674]
174. Nelson HS. Gastroesophageal reflux and pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1984;73(5 Pt 1):547–56. [PubMed: 6371102]
175. Nelson HS. Prospects for antihistamines in the treatment of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112(4 Suppl):S96–S100. [PubMed: 14530795]
176. Nelson HS. Allergen immunotherapy: Where is it now? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;119(4):769–77. Epub March 2007. [PubMed: 17337297]
177. Nelson HS, Fernandez-Caldas E. Prevalence of house dust mites in the Rocky Mountain states. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995;75(4):337–9. [PubMed: 7583849]
178. Nelson HS, Hirsch SR, Ohman JL Jr,, Platts-Mills TA, Reed CE, Solomon WR. Recommendations for the use of residential air-cleaning devices in the treatment of allergic respiratory diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1988;82(4):661–9. [PubMed: 3171006]
179. Nicholson KG, Kent J, Ireland DC. Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults. BMJ. 1993;307(6910):982–6. [PMC free article: PMC1679193] [PubMed: 8241910]
180. Nicholson PJ, Cullinan P, Taylor AJ, Burge PS, Boyle C. Evidence based guidelines for the prevention, identification, and management of occupational asthma. Occup Environ Med. 2005;62(5):290–9. [PMC free article: PMC1741012] [PubMed: 15837849]
181. Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, Read AW, Landau LI, Stanley FJ, Kendall GE, Burton PR. Association between breast feeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study. BMJ. 1999;319(7213):815–9. [PMC free article: PMC314207] [PubMed: 10496824]
182. Odeh M, Oliven A, Bassan H. Timolol eyedrop-induced fatal bronchospasm in an asthmatic patient. J Fam Pract. 1991;32(1):97–8. [PubMed: 1985142]
183. O'Hollaren MT, Yunginger JW, Offord KP, Somers MJ, O'Connell EJ, Ballard DJ, Sachs MI. Exposure to an aeroallergen as a possible precipitating factor in respiratory arrest in young patients with asthma. N Engl J Med. 1991;324(6):359–63. [PubMed: 1987459]
184. Olsen OT, Larsen KR, Jacobsan L, Svendsen UG. A 1-year, placebo-controlled, double-blind house-dust-mite immunotherapy study in asthmatic adults. Allergy. 1997;52(8):853–9. [PubMed: 9284985]
185. Ostro BD, Lipsett MJ, Mann JK, Braxton-Owens H, White MC. Air pollution and asthma exacerbations among African-American children in Los Angeles. Inhal Toxicol. 1995;7:711–22. [PubMed: 11246581]
186. Ostro BD, Lipsett MJ, Mann JK, Wiener MB, Selner J. Indoor air pollution and asthma. Results from a panel study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(6):1400–6. [PubMed: 8004290]
187. Ownby DR, Johnson CC, Peterson EL. Exposure to dogs and cats in the first year of life and risk of allergic sensitization at 6 to 7 years of age. JAMA. 2002;288(8):963–72. [PubMed: 12190366]
188. Pajno GB, Barberio G, De Luca F, Morabito L, Parmiani S. Prevention of new sensitizations in asthmatic children monosensitized to house dust mite by specific immunotherapy. A six-year follow-up study. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31(9):1392–7. [PubMed: 11591189]
189. Pearson PJ, Lewis SA, Britton J, Fogarty A. Vitamin E supplements in asthma: a parallel group randomised placebo controlled trial. Thorax. 2004;59(8):652–6. [PMC free article: PMC1747112] [PubMed: 15282383]
190. Peat JK, Mihrshahi S, Kemp AS, Marks GB, Tovey ER, Webb K, Mellis CM, Leeder SR. Three-year outcomes of dietary fatty acid modification and house dust mite reduction in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;114(4):807–13. [PubMed: 15480319]
191. Peden DB. The epidemiology and genetics of asthma risk associated with air pollution. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(2):213–9. [PubMed: 15696070]
192. Peroni DG, Boner AL, Vallone G, Antolini I, Warner JO. Effective allergen avoidance at high altitude reduces allergen-induced bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(6):1442–6. [PubMed: 8004296]
193. Peroni DG, Piacentini GL, Costella S, Pietrobelli A, Bodini A, Loiacono A, Aralla R, Boner AL. Mite avoidance can reduce air trapping and airway inflammation in allergic asthmatic children. Clin Exp Allergy. 2002;32(6):850–5. [PubMed: 12047430]
194. Perrin-Fayolle M, Gormand F, Braillon G, Lombard-Platet R, Vignal J, Azzar D, Forichon J, Adeleine P. Long-term results of surgical treatment for gastroesophageal reflux in asthmatic patients. Chest. 1989;96(1):40–5. [PubMed: 2736991]
195. Phipatanakul W, Cronin B, Wood RA, Eggleston PA, Shih MC, Song L, Tachdjian R, Oettgen HC. Effect of environmental intervention on mouse allergen levels in homes of inner-city Boston children with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2004;92(4):420–5. [PMC free article: PMC1360245] [PubMed: 15104193]
196. Phoa LL, Toelle BG, Ng K, Marks GB. Effects of gas and other fume emitting heaters on the development of asthma during childhood. Thorax. 2004;59(9):741–5. [PMC free article: PMC1747141] [PubMed: 15333848]
197. Piacentini GL, Martinati L, Fornari A, Comis A, Carcereri L, Boccagni P, Boner AL. Antigen avoidance in a mountain environment: influence on basophil releasability in children with allergic asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993;92(5):644–50. [PubMed: 7693784]
198. Pilotto LS, Nitschke M, Smith BJ, Pisaniello D, Ruffin RE, McElroy HJ, Martin J, Hiller JE. Randomized controlled trial of unflued gas heater replacement on respiratory health of asthmatic schoolchildren. Int J Epidemiol. 2004;33(1):208–14. [PubMed: 15075170]
199. Pisati G, Baruffini A, Zedda S. Toluene diisocyanate induced asthma: outcome according to persistence or cessation of exposure. Br J Ind Med. 1993;50(1):60–4. [PMC free article: PMC1061235] [PubMed: 8381658]
200. Platts-Mills T, Vaughan J, Squillace S, Woodfolk J, Sporik R. Sensitisation, asthma, and a modified Th2 response in children exposed to cat allergen: a population-based cross-sectional study. Lancet. 2001;357(9258):752–6. [PubMed: 11253969]
201. Platts-Mills TA, Vaughan JW, Carter MC, Woodfolk JA. The role of intervention in established allergy: avoidance of indoor allergens in the treatment of chronic allergic disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106(5):787–804. [PubMed: 11080699]
202. Platts-Mills TA, Vervloet D, Thomas WR, Aalberse RC, Chapman MD. Indoor allergens and asthma: report of the Third International Workshop. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;100(6 Pt 1):S2–S24. [PubMed: 9438476]
203. Pollart SM, Chapman MD, Fiocco GP, Rose G, Platts-Mills TA. Epidemiology of acute asthma: IgE antibodies to common inhalant allergens as a risk factor for emergency room visits. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1989;83(5):875–82. [PubMed: 2715548]
204. Ponikau JU, Sherris DA, Kephart GM, Kern EB, Gaffey TA, Tarara JE, Kita H. Features of airway remodeling and eosinophilic inflammation in chronic rhinosinusitis: is the histopathology similar to asthma? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112(5):877–82. [PubMed: 14610473]
205. Ponka A. Asthma and low level air pollution in Helsinki. Arch Environ Health. 1991;46(5):262–270. [PubMed: 1953033]
206. Ponsonby AL, Couper D, Dwyer T, Carmichael A, Kemp A, Cochrane J. The relation between infant indoor environment and subsequent asthma. Epidemiology. 2000;11(2):128–35. [PubMed: 11021608]
207. Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T, Kemp A, Couper D, Cochrane J, Carmichael A. A prospective study of the association between home gas appliance use during infancy and subsequent dust mite sensitization and lung function in childhood. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31(10):1544–52. [PubMed: 11678854]
208. Pope CA III,, Dockery DW, Spengler JD, Raizenne ME. Respiratory health and PM10 pollution. A daily time series analysis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;144(3 Pt 1):668–74. [PubMed: 1892309]
209. Popplewell EJ, Innes VA, Lloyd-Hughes S, Jenkins EL, Khdir K, Bryant TN, Warner JO, Warner JA. The effect of high-efficiency and standard vacuum-cleaners on mite, cat and dog allergen levels and clinical progress. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2000;11(3):142–8. [PubMed: 10981523]
210. Purello-D'Ambrosio F, Gangemi S, Merendino RA, Isola S, Puccinelli P, Parmiani S, Ricciardi L. Prevention of new sensitizations in monosensitized subjects submitted to specific immunotherapy or not. A retrospective study. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31(8):1295–302. [PubMed: 11529901]
211. Radon K, Busching K, Heinrich J, Wichmann HE, Jorres RA, Magnussen H, Nowak D. Passive smoking exposure: a risk factor for chronic bronchitis and asthma in adults? Chest. 2002;122(3):1086–90. [PubMed: 12226059]
212. Rak S, Bjornson A, Hakanson L, Sorenson S, Venge P. The effect of immunotherapy on eosinophil accumulation and production of eosinophil chemotactic activity in the lung of subjects with asthma during natural pollen exposure. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1991;88(6):878–88. [PubMed: 1744358]
213. Rautava S, Kalliomaki M, Isolauri E. New therapeutic strategy for combating the increasing burden of allergic disease: Probiotics-A Nutrition, Allergy, Mucosal Immunology and Intestinal Microbiota (NAMI) Research Group report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;116(1):31–7. [PubMed: 15990769]
214. Reid MJ, Lockey RF, Turkeltaub PC, Platts-Mills TA. Survey of fatalities from skin testing and immunotherapy 1985–1989. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993;92(1 Pt 1):6–15. [PubMed: 8335856]
215. Reid MJ, Moss RB, Hsu YP, Kwasnicki JM, Commerford TM, Nelson BL. Seasonal asthma in northern California: allergic causes and efficacy of immunotherapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1986;78(4 Pt 1):590–600. [PubMed: 3771951]
216. Reisman RE, Mauriello PM, Davis GB, Georgitis JW, DeMasi JM. A double-blind study of the effectiveness of a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter in the treatment of patients with perennial allergic rhinitis and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990;85(6):1050–7. [PubMed: 2191991]
217. Rijssenbeek-Nouwens LH, Oosting AJ, Bruijnzeel-Koomen CA, de Bruin-Weller MS. Anti-allergic mattress covers in asthma: to do or not to do? Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33(12):1613–7. [PubMed: 14656344]
218. Romieu I, Meneses F, Sienra-Monge JJ, Huerta J, Ruiz Velasco S, White MC, Etzel RA, Hernandez-Avila M. Effects of urban air pollutants on emergency visits for childhood asthma in Mexico City. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;141(6):546–53. [PubMed: 7900722]
219. Rona RJ, Duran-Tauleria E, Chinn S. Family size, atopic disorders in parents, asthma in children, and ethnicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;99(4):454–60. [PubMed: 9111488]
220. Rosenstreich DL, Eggleston P, Kattan M, Baker D, Slavin RG, Gergen P, Mitchell H, McNiff-Mortimer K, Lynn H, Ownby D. et al. The role of cockroach allergy and exposure to cockroach allergen in causing morbidity among inner-city children with asthma. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(19):1356–63. [PubMed: 9134876]
221. Rumchev K, Spickett J, Bulsara M, Phillips M, Stick S. Association of domestic exposure to volatile organic compounds with asthma in young children. Thorax. 2004;59(9):746–51. [PMC free article: PMC1747137] [PubMed: 15333849]
222. Salpeter SR, Ormiston TM, Salpeter EE. Cardioselective beta-blockers in patients with reactive airway disease: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137(9):715–25. [PubMed: 12416945]
223. Sampson HA. Adverse reactions to foods. Middleton's Allergy Principles and Practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby, Inc., 2003. Ch. 89.
224. Sampson HA, Mendelson L, Rosen JP. Fatal and near-fatal anaphylactic reactions to food in children and adolescents. N Engl J Med. 1992;327(6):380–84. [PubMed: 1294076]
225. Sandberg S, Jarvenpaa S, Penttinen A, Paton JY, McCann DC. Asthma exacerbations in children immediately following stressful life events: a Cox's hierarchical regression. Thorax 2004;59(12):1046–1051. Erratum in: Thorax. 2005;60(3):261. [PMC free article: PMC1746895] [PubMed: 15563703]
226. Sandberg S, Paton JY, Ahola S, McCann DC, McGuinness D, Hillary CR, Oja H. The role of acute and chronic stress in asthma attacks in children. Lancet. 2000;356(9234):982–87. [PubMed: 11041399]
227. Sandrini A, Ferreira IM, Jardim JR, Zamel N, Chapman KR. Effect of nasal triamcinolone acetonide on lower airway inflammatory markers in patients with allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(2):313–20. [PubMed: 12589351]
228. Schaub B, von Mutius E. Obesity and asthma, what are the links? Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;5(2):185–93. [PubMed: 15764911]
229. Schoene RB, Abuan T, Ward RL, Beasley CH. Effects of topical betaxolol, timolol, and placebo on pulmonary function in asthmatic bronchitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984;97(1):86–92. [PubMed: 6141730]
230. Schwartz J, Slater D, Larson TV, Pierson WE, Koenig JQ. Particulate air pollution and hospital emergency room visits for asthma in Seattle. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147(4):826–31. [PubMed: 8466116]
231. Sears MR, Burrows B, Herbison GP, Holdaway MD, Flannery EM. Atopy in childhood. II. Relationship to airway responsiveness, hay fever and asthma. Clin Exp Allergy. 1993;23(11):949–56. [PubMed: 10779283]
232. Sears MR, Greene JM, Willan AR, Wiecek EM, Taylor DR, Flannery EM, Cowan JO, Herbison GP, Silva PA, Poulton R. A longitudinal, population-based, cohort study of childhood asthma followed to adulthood. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(15):1414–22. [PubMed: 14534334]
233. Sears MR, Herbison GP, Holdaway MD, Hewitt CJ, Flannery EM, Silva PA. The relative risks of sensitivity to grass pollen, house dust mite and cat dander in the development of childhood asthma. Clin Exp Allergy. 1989;19(4):419–24. [PubMed: 2758355]
234. Settipane RA, Schrank PJ, Simon RA, Mathison DA, Christiansen SC, Stevenson DD. Prevalence of cross-sensitivity with acetaminophen in aspirin-sensitive asthmatic subjects. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96(4):480–85. [PubMed: 7560658]
235. Shaheen SO, Sterne JA, Thompson RL, Songhurst CE, Margetts BM, Burney PG. Dietary antioxidants and asthma in adults: population-based case-control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(10 Pt 1):1823–8. [PubMed: 11734430]
236. Shames RS, Heilbron DC, Janson SL, Kishiyama JL, Au DS, Adelman DC. Clinical differences among women with and without self-reported perimenstrual asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1998;81(1):65–72. [PubMed: 9690575]
237. Shima M, Adachi M. Effect of outdoor and indoor nitrogen dioxide on respiratory symptoms in schoolchildren. Int J Epidemiol. 2000;29(5):862–70. [PubMed: 11034970]
238. Shore SA, Fredberg JJ. Obesity, smooth muscle, and airway hyperresponsiveness. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(5):925–7. [PubMed: 15867846]
239. Signorello LB, McLaughlin JK, Lipworth L, Friis S, Sorensen HT, Blot WJ. Confounding by indication in epidemiologic studies of commonly used analgesics. Am J Ther. 2002;9(3):199–205. Review. [PubMed: 11941379]
240. Sigurs N, Gustafsson PM, Bjarnason R, Lundberg F, Schmidt S, Sigurbergsson F, Kjellman B. Severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy and asthma and allergy at age 13. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171(2):137–41. Epub October 2004. [PubMed: 15516534]
241. Simard B, Turcotte H, Marceau P, Biron S, Hould FS, Lebel S, Marceau S, Boulet LP. Asthma and sleep apnea in patients with morbid obesity: outcome after bariatric surgery. Obes Surg. 2004;14(10):1381–8. [PubMed: 15603655]
242. Simon HU, Grotzer M, Nikolaizik WH, Blaser K, Schoni MH. High altitude climate therapy reduces peripheral blood T lymphocyte activation, eosinophilia, and bronchial obstruction in children with house-dust mite allergic asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1994;17(5):304–11. [PubMed: 8058424]
243. Sippel JM, Pedula KL, Vollmer WM, Buist AS, Osborne ML. Associations of smoking with hospital-based care and quality of life in patients with obstructive airway disease. Chest. 1999;115(3):691–6. [PubMed: 10084477]
244. Slaughter JC, Lumley T, Sheppard L, Koenig JQ, Shapiro GG. Effects of ambient air pollution on symptom severity and medication use in children with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2003;91(4):346–53. [PubMed: 14582813]
245. Smedje G, Norbäck D, Wessén B, Edling C. Asthma among school employees in relation to the school environment. Indoor Air 96. Proceedings; vol. 1:611–6, 7th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate; 1996 July 21–26, Nagoya, Japan.
246. Smith RD, Rooks R. The diurnal variation of air-borne ragweed pollen as determined by a continuous recording particle sampler and implications of the study. J Allergy. 1954;25(1):36–45. [PubMed: 13117610]
247. Solomon WR. Fungus aerosols arising from cold-mist vaporizers. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1974;54(4):222–8. [PubMed: 4413523]
248. Solomon WR. A volumetric study of winter fungus prevalence in the air of midwestern homes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1976;57(1):46–55. [PubMed: 942733]
249. Solomon WR, Burge HA, Boise JR. Exclusion of particulate allergens by window air conditioners. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1980;65(4):305–8. [PubMed: 7358946]
250. Sontag SJ, O'Connell S, Khandelwal S, Greenlee H, Schnell T, Nemchausky B, Chejfec G, Miller T, Seidel J, Sonnenberg A. Asthmatics with gastroesophageal reflux: long term results of a randomized trial of medical and surgical antireflux therapies. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98(5):987–99. [PubMed: 12809818]
251. Soyseth V, Kongerud J, Boe J. Postnatal maternal smoking increases the prevalence of asthma but not of bronchial hyperresponsiveness or atopy in their children. Chest. 1995;107(2):389–94. [PubMed: 7842766]
252. Spector SL, Wangaard CH, Farr RS. Aspirin and concomitant idiosyncrasies in adult asthmatic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1979;64(6 Pt 1):500–6. [PubMed: 512268]
253. Sporik R, Holgate ST, Platts-Mills TA, Cogswell JJ. Exposure to house-dust mite allergen (Der p I) and the development of asthma in childhood. A prospective study. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(8):502–7. [PubMed: 2377175]
254. Squillace SP, Sporik RB, Rakes G, Couture N, Lawrence A, Merriam S, Zhang J, Platts-Mills AE. Sensitization to dust mites as a dominant risk factor for asthma among adolescents living in central Virginia. Multiple regression analysis of a population-based study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156(6):1760–4. [PubMed: 9412552]
255. Stenius-Aarniala B, Poussa T, Kvarnstrom J, Gronlund EL, Ylikahri M, Mustajoki P. Immediate and long term effects of weight reduction in obese people with asthma: randomised controlled study. BMJ 2000;320(7238):827–32. Erratum in: BMJ. 2000;320(7240):984. [PMC free article: PMC27319] [PubMed: 10731173]
256. Stevens DA, Schwartz HJ, Lee JY, Moskovitz BL, Jerome DC, Catanzaro A, Bamberger DM, Weinmann AJ, Tuazon CU, Judson MA. et al. A randomized trial of itraconazole in allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(11):756–62. [PubMed: 10717010]
257. Strachan DP. Damp housing and childhood asthma: validation of reporting of symptoms. BMJ. 1988;297(6658):1223–6. Erratum in: BMJ 1988:10;297(6662):1500. [PMC free article: PMC1834724] [PubMed: 3145060]
258. Strunk RC. Death due to asthma. New insights into sudden unexpected deaths, but the focus remains on prevention. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148(3):550–2. [PubMed: 8368621]
259. Strunk RC, Mrazek DA, Fuhrmann GS, LaBrecque JF. Physiologic and psychological characteristics associated with deaths due to asthma in childhood. A case-controlled study. JAMA. 1985;254(9):1193–8. [PubMed: 4021061]
260. Suissa S, Ernst P. Bias in observational study of the effectiveness of nasal corticosteroids in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115(4):714–9. [PubMed: 15805989]
261. Swanson MC, Agarwal MK, Reed CE. An immunochemical approach to indoor aeroallergen quantitation with a new volumetric air sampler: studies with mite, roach, cat, mouse, and guinea pig antigens. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1985;76(5):724–9. [PubMed: 4056257]
262. Szczeklik A, Gryglewski RJ, Czerniawska-Mysik G. Clinical patterns of hypersensitivity to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and their pathogenesis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1977;60(5):276–84. [PubMed: 410857]
263. Targonski PV, Persky VW, Ramekrishnan V. Effect of environmental molds on risk of death from asthma during the pollen season. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;95(5 Pt 11):955–61. [PubMed: 7751516]
264. Taylor SL, Bush RK, Selner JC, Nordlee JA, Wiener MB, Holden K, Koepke JW, Busse WW. Sensitivity to sulfited foods among sulfite-sensitive subjects with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1988;81(6):1159–67. [PubMed: 3379229]
265. Taylor WR, Newacheck PW. Impact of childhood asthma on health. Pediatrics. 1992;90(5):657–62. [PubMed: 1408534]
266. ten Brinke A, Grootendorst DC, Schmidt JT, De Bruine FT, van Buchem MA, Sterk PJ, Rabe KF, Bel EH. Chronic sinusitis in severe asthma is related to sputum eosinophilia. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(4):621–26. [PubMed: 11941310]
267. Terreehorst I, Hak E, Oosting AJ, Tempels-Pavlica Z, De Monchy JG, Bruijnzeel-Koomen CA, Aalberse RC, Gerth van Wijk R. Evaluation of impermeable covers for bedding in patients with allergic rhinitis. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(3):237–46. [PubMed: 12867607]
268. Thurston GD, Ito K, Kinney PL, Lippmann M. A multi-year study of air pollution and respiratory hospital admissions in three New York State metropolitan areas: results for 1988 and 1989 summers. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1992;2(4):429–50. [PubMed: 1336418]
269. Tilkian AG, Motta J, Guilleminault C. Sleep apnea syndromes. In: Tilkian AG, Motta J, Guilleminault C, eds. Cardiac Arrhythmias in Sleep Apnea. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1978. pp. 197–210.
270. Tosca MA, Cosentino C, Pallestrini E, Caligo G, Milanese M, Ciprandi G. Improvement of clinical and immunopathologic parameters in asthmatic children treated for concomitant chronic rhinosinusitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2003;91(1):71–8. [PubMed: 12877453]
271. Tsitoura S, Nestoridou K, Botis P, Karmaus W, Botezan C, Bojarskas J, Arshad H, Kuehr J, Forster J. Randomized trial to prevent sensitization to mite allergens in toddlers and preschoolers by allergen reduction and education: one-year results. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156(10):1021–7. [PubMed: 12361449]
272. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. 6th ed. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, January 2005.
273. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Residential Air-Cleaning Devices: A Summary of Available Information. Washington, DC, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990.
274. Uri N, Cohen-Kerem R, Barzilai G, Greenberg E, Doweck I, Weiler-Ravell D. Functional endoscopic sinus surgery in the treatment of massive polyposis in asthmatic patients. J Laryngol Otol. 2002;116(3):185–9. [PubMed: 11893259]
275. van der Heide S, Kauffman HF, Dubois AE, De Monchy JG. Allergen reduction measures in houses of allergic asthmatic patients: effects of air-cleaners and allergen-impermeable mattress covers. Eur Respir J. 1997;10(6):1217–23. [PubMed: 9192919]
276. van Strien RT, Gent JF, Belanger K, Triche E, Bracken MB, Leaderer BP. Exposure to NO₂ and nitrous acid and respiratory symptoms in the first year of life. Epidemiology. 2004;15(4):471–8. [PubMed: 15232409]
277. Varney VA, Edwards J, Tabbah K, Brewster H, Mavroleon G, Frew AJ. Clinical efficacy of specific immunotherapy to cat dander: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Clin Exp Allergy. 1997;27(8):860–7. [PubMed: 9291281]
278. Verhoeff AP, van Strien RT, van Wijnen JH, Brunekreef B. Damp housing and childhood respiratory symptoms: the role of sensitization to dust mites and molds. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;141(2):103–10. [PubMed: 7817966]
279. Vervloet D, Charpin D, Haddi E, N'guyen A, Birnbaum J, Soler M, Van der Brempt X. Medication requirements and house dust mite exposure in mite-sensitive asthmatics. Allergy. 1991;46(7):554–8. [PubMed: 1796781]
280. Walters S, Griffiths RK, Ayres JG. Temporal association between hospital admissions for asthma in Birmingham and ambient levels of sulphur dioxide and smoke. Thorax. 1994;49(2):133–40. [PMC free article: PMC474324] [PubMed: 8128402]
281. Warburton CJ, Niven RM, Pickering CA, Fletcher AM, Hepworth J, Francis HC. Domiciliary air filtration units, symptoms and lung function in atopic asthmatics. Respir Med. 1994;88(10):771–6. [PubMed: 7846339]
282. Wark PA, Gibson PG, Wilson AJ. Azoles for allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis associated with asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3):CD001108. [PubMed: 12917898]
283. Wark PA, Johnston SL, Bucchieri F, Powell R, Puddicombe S, Laza-Stanca V, Holgate ST, Davies DE. Asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells have a deficient innate immune response to infection with rhinovirus. J Exp Med. 2005;201(6):937–47. [PMC free article: PMC2213100] [PubMed: 15781584]
284. Warner JA, Marchant JL, Warner JO. Double blind trial of ionisers in children with asthma sensitive to the house dust mite. Thorax. 1993;48(4):330–3. [PMC free article: PMC464427] [PubMed: 8511730]
285. Weiss ST. Obesity: insight into the origins of asthma. Nat Immunol. 2005;6(6):537–9. [PubMed: 15908930]
286. Weiss ST, Shore S. Obesity and asthma: directions for research. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169(8):963–8. [PubMed: 14742299]
287. White MC, Etzel RA, Wilcox WD, Lloyd C. Exacerbations of childhood asthma and ozone pollution in Atlanta. Environ Res. 1994;65(1):56–68. [PubMed: 8162885]
288. Withers NJ, Low L, Holgate ST, Clough JB. The natural history of respiratory symptoms in a cohort of adolescents. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158(2):352–7. [PubMed: 9700106]
289. Wood RA, Johnson EF, Van Natta ML, Chen PH, Eggleston PA. A placebo-controlled trial of a HEPA air cleaner in the treatment of cat allergy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158(1):115–20. [PubMed: 9655716]
290. Woodcock A, Forster L, Matthews E, Martin J, Letley L, Vickers M, Britton J, Strachan D, Howarth P, Altmann D. et al. Medical Research Council General Practice Research Framework. Control of exposure to mite allergen and allergen-impermeable bed covers for adults with asthma. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(3):225–36. [PubMed: 12867606]
291. Woodfolk JA, Hayden ML, Couture N, Platts-Mills TA. Chemical treatment of carpets to reduce allergen: comparison of the effects of tannic acid and other treatments on proteins derived from dust mites and cats. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96(3):325–33. [PubMed: 7560634]
292. Woodfolk JA, Luczynska CM, de Blay F, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TA. The effect of vacuum cleaners on the concentration and particle size distribution of airborne cat allergen. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993;91(4):829–37. [PubMed: 8473670]
293. Woods RK, Raven JM, Walters EH, Abramson MJ, Thien FC. Fatty acid levels and risk of asthma in young adults. Thorax. 2004;59(2):105–10. [PMC free article: PMC1746920] [PubMed: 14760147]
294. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. Factors influencing the relation of infant feeding to asthma and recurrent wheeze in childhood. Thorax. 2001;56(3):192–7. [PMC free article: PMC1758780] [PubMed: 11182011]
295. Wright RJ, Cohen S, Carey V, Weiss ST, Gold DR. Parental stress as a predictor of wheezing in infancy: a prospective birth-cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165(3):358–65. [PubMed: 11818321]
296. Wright RJ, Finn P, Contreras JP, Cohen S, Wright RO, Staudenmayer J, Wand M, Perkins D, Weiss ST, Gold DR. Chronic caregiver stress and IgE expression, allergen-induced proliferation, and cytokine profiles in a birth cohort predisposed to atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004a;113(6):1051–7. [PubMed: 15208584]
297. Wright RJ, Mitchell H, Visness CM, Cohen S, Stout J, Evans R, Gold DR. Community violence and asthma morbidity: the Inner-City Asthma Study. Am J Public Health. 2004b;94(4):625–32. [PMC free article: PMC1448309] [PubMed: 15054016]
298. Yigla M, Tov N, Solomonov A, Rubin AH, Harlev D. Difficult-to-control asthma and obstructive sleep apnea. J Asthma. 2003;40(8):865–71. [PubMed: 14736085]
299. Yunginger JW, Ahlstedt S, Eggleston PA, Homburger HA, Nelson HS, Ownby DR, Platts-Mills TA, Sampson HA, Sicherer SH, Weinstein AM. et al. Quantitative IgE antibody assays in allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;105(6 Pt 1):1077–84. [PubMed: 10856139]
300. Zeiger RS. Current issues with influenza vaccination in egg allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110(6):834–40. [PubMed: 12464947]
301. Zimmerman JL, Woodruff PG, Clark S, Camargo CA. Relation between phase of menstrual cycle and emergency department visits for acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(2 Pt 1):512–5. [PubMed: 10934079]